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155 page printout
Reproducible Electronic Publishing can defeat censorship.
The value of this 360K disk is $7.00. This disk, its
printout, or copies of either are to be copied and given away,
but NOT sold.
Bank of Wisdom, Box 926, Louisville, KY 40201
**** ****
EDITED BY
E. HALDEMAN-JULIUS B-733
A HISTORY OF THE BRITISH,
SECULAR MOVEMENT
By JOHN EDWIN McGEE
**** ****
CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE
Preface ................................................ 2
I ORIGINS ................................................ 2
II. A PERIOD OF FREE ASSOCIATION
Basic Features ........................................ 15
A Masterful Convert ................................... 17
Literature ............................................ 19
Assemblages ........................................... 21
Advancing Secularist Doctrines ........................ 22
Attacking the Churches ................................ 30
Opposition to Secularism .............................. 34
Dissension ............................................ 36
III. THE BRADLAUGH EPOCH
Organization .......................................... 38
Leaders ............................................... 42
Publications .......................................... 46
Meetings .............................................. 48
Ceremonies ............................................ 51
Furthering the Principles of Secularism ............... 52
Anti-Church Activities ................................ 68
The Attack upon Secularism ............................ 70
Association with Organized International Freethought... 72
IV. THE FOOTE-COHEN ERA
Proportions of the Secular Movement ................... 73
Administrative Affairs ................................ 74
Outstanding Adherents ................................. 80
Printed Matter ........................................ 81
Public Occasions ...................................... 83
Propagation of Secular Teachings ...................... 84
Fighting the Religious Interests ...................... 89
The Campaign against Secularism ....................... 90
Bank of Wisdom
Box 926, Louisville, KY 40201
1
A HISTORY OF THE BRITISH SECULAR MOVEMENT
V. SIGNIFICANCE .......................................... 92
Bibliography .......................................... 97
**** ****
PREFACE
Despite the significant part which the British Secular
Movement has played in bringing about many of the ideas and
institutions which are of fundamental importance in the Great
Britain of today, the public has not had ample opportunities for
acquiring information concerning the Movement. To begin with, the
history of the undertaking has never been written. Added to this
is the fact that while many comments have been made on the
Secular Movement, they almost always have been tinged with the
emotion of Partisanship, and have departed widely from the
detached and impartial observations associated with the careful
historian. Finally, though biographies have been written of the
most prominent of the Secularist leaders, the authors of these
books have magnified the persons whose lives they treated at the
expense of the Secular Movement itself. These facts seemed to me
to provide ample justification for the writing of a sound history
of the Secular Movement, and inspired me to attempt to produce
such a history.
The entire manuscript was read with much care by Professor
Preston Slosson, of the University of Michigan. Professor Slosson
offered many valuable suggestions for the improvement of the
work. I am grateful indeed for the advice which Professor Slosson
gave me.
My debt to my late wife is simply limitless. For many
laborious months she worked along with me in the libraries,
helping me to gather the raw materials for the book from the
almost inexhaustible list of sources -- mainly pamphlets and
magazines -- which contain them. Besides all this she offered
valuable suggestions and helped solve knotty problems in
connection with the preparation of the manuscript. I wish to
acknowledge my deep appreciation for her assistance.
JOHN EDWIN McGEE.
April, 1948.
**** ****
CHAPTER I
ORIGINS
No phase of the history of Great Britain is more stirring
than the organized efforts, in the years after the middle of the
19th century, to achieve a less harsh and cruel existence for the
great masses of the British common people; and of the numerous
campaigns for popular reform which marked the post mid-19th
century period none, was more impressive than the British Secular
Bank of Wisdom
Box 926, Louisville, KY 40201
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A HISTORY OF THE BRITISH SECULAR MOVEMENT
Movement. The Secularists, as those who carried on the Secular
Movement were called, labored for their cause with a zeal which
at times was almost fanatical. They waged their fight, too,
simultaneously on many fronts. And, though often discriminated
against socially for their efforts, they persevered in their
undertaking almost from the very beginning of the second half of
the 19th century right down to the present time.
Except for a few of the leaders, who, because of being, say,
journalists or small shopkeepers, belonged to the lower middle
class, the Secularists were virtually all members of the
workings, classes; and the Secular Movement was undertaken to
bring to an end a set of conditions which from the working class
point of view was provokingly unsatisfactory. When the
Secularists began their work these unfavorable conditions were in
evidence throughout every sphere of British society. In the
political realm the laboring masses of men and women counted for
little indeed. The monarchy itself, though a strictly limited
one. was identified with the traditions and interests of the
aristocracy, while the cost of its upkeep (which was
considerable) fell upon the people as a whole. The House of Lords
was composed of Church dignitaries and hereditary peers whose
associations, tastes, and outlook were these of the privileged
classes. The Members of the House of Commons were elected by
voters drawn from the middle and upper classes, and belonged
themselves to these groups. Government was really an affair of,
by, and for the higher classes.
The economic and social setup, too, was unfavorable to the
welfare of The laboring masses. Thanks to the enclosure of lard
in the country and to the application of machinery to industry in
the towns, fewer workers were needed by the employing classes
than were available. In consequence, low wages were paid in cases
where employment was granted. while in many instances work was
not to be had on any terms. Poverty thus dogged the heels of the
working classes, and with poverty went crowded, unwholesome
living conditions. Then, too, no systematic provision was made
for the care of those who became destitute, or for those who
lingered on a while on earth after they were no longer able to
work. Added to all this was the fact, that there were almost no
opportunities available to the poor, especially in urban
districts, for wholesome recreation and entertainment. Week-end
pleasure trips, for example, even to nearby places, could not be
afforded. Wide and varied social contacts were out of the
question. The museums, libraries, and art galleries were all
closed on Sunday, the one day of the week when workingmen might
have visited them. Even Sunday music in the parks was
nonexistent. Bleak indeed were the lives of those whose lot it
was to toil.
The schools of the day served the lower classes
inadequately. No state-controlled school system providing
universal, secular education was in existence, and the private
(denominational, usually Anglican), state-added schools that
constituted such a system as did exist not only failed to extend
any educational training whatever, to more than half of the
common people but did not make available even to the remainder a
strictly secular education.
Bank of Wisdom
Box 926, Louisville, KY 40201
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A HISTORY OF THE BRITISH SECULAR MOVEMENT
Operative, in effect, primarily against the unprivileged
classes were various obstructions and dangers to the free
expression of opinion. There was, to begin with, the matter of
free speech as exemplified at public meetings in the parks and
other open spaces. Theoretically, the right to hold such meeting
was assured. Actually, however, they were from time to time
interfered with by the public authorities. The situation in
regard to the freedom of the press, too, was not satisfactory.
Though supposedly free, the press was subjected to restrictions
which amounted to serious loss of liberty. For one thing, there
were occasional instances of governmental interference with the
right of publication. Then, too, indirect expedients were
resorted to for regulating the press. Taxes were levied on
newspapers, on advertisements, and on paper, and enactments --
the so-called Security Laws -- calling upon newspapers to provide
security against blasphemous or seditious utterances were
sometimes invoked. Finally, various arrangements and regulations
existed which prevented equality before the Law for all forms of
speculative opinion. First, there were the provisions concerning
oath-taking. As the situation stood, the taking of an oath
ordinarily accompanied legal testimony. Quakers and other
religious persons who had conscientious scruples against oath-
taking were, however, allowed simply to make an affirmation. But
no such privilege was extended to the non-religious. These had
either to take the oath or to lose the right to testify. Indeed,
they might be deprived of the right of testimony even though
willing to take the oath, if interested parties chose to have the
state of their religious opinions brought to light. Secondly,
there was a State Church -- a church endowed and supported by the
state and therefore by the citizens as a whole irrespective of
their religious beliefs or church affiliations. And thirdly,
there was the situation as to blasphemy. What was called
blasphemy was punishable as a crime, alike under a statute which
had been enacted during the reign of William III and subsequently
amended so as not to apply to the Unitarians, and under the
common law. And in both cases blasphemy was narrowly conceived as
a denial or reproach of the Christian religion regardless of the
tone of such condemnation. Thus, the statute, as it now stood,
declared as guilty of blasphemy "any person or persons having
been educated in, or at any time having made profession of, the
Christian religion within this realm who shall, by writing,
printing, teaching, or advised speaking ... assert or maintain
that there are more Gods than one, or shall deny the Christian
doctrine to be true, or the Holy Scriptures of the Old and New
Testament to be of divine authority"; and under the common law,
according to the pronouncement (1675) of Lord Chief Justice Sir
Matthew Hale, whose interpretation was still the generally
accepted one, it was blasphemous "to speak in reproach of the
Christian religion." It was true that no prosecution had ever
taken place under the statute, but there was no assurance that
such would always be the case; and under the common law numerous
prosecutions down through the years had occurred.
In the face of all these conditions a course of action
looking to the promotion of mass welfare might logically have
been undertaken by organized Christianity. As a matter of fact
there were Churchmen here and there who engaged in such a task.
Bank of Wisdom
Box 926, Louisville, KY 40201
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A HISTORY OF THE BRITISH SECULAR MOVEMENT
In the Church of England the "Christian Socialists" -- Maurice,
Kingsley, and other -- expressed sympathy for the working classes
and furthered industrial cooperation. And in the Nonconformist
Churches there were undoubtedly active friends of such causes as
democracy, social legislation, secular education, and Church
disestablishment. But the Churches as organized bodies did not
rise to the occasion; nor, for that matter, did the bulk of their
responsible representatives as individuals. Officially and
unofficially the tendency was to support the existing conditions.
To this end, clergymen and prominent laymen (who themselves
generally belonged to the middle and upper classes) expressed
themselves in speeches, sermons, and publications. They not only
propagated an otherworldly attitude calculated to divert
attention from the hardships and injustices of this life, but
made frequent use of biblical texts which were of a reactionary
cast -- such texts as "The Powers that be are Ordained by God,"
and "Meddle not with them that are given to change." As Professor
Faulkner summed up the situation, "Organized Christianity
deliberately refused the leadership in political and social
reformation..." [Harold Underwood Faulkner, "Chartism and the
Churches" (1916), pp. 119-120.] Thus, from the point of view of
the working classes, the Church itself was objectionable.
it was these conditions -- political, social, intellectual,
and religious -- that produced not only the British Secular
Movement but the many other reforming enterprises already
referred to in these pages; and it was these conditions which
inspired, in almost every case, persons who were both able and
earnest to assume positions of leadership in such undertakings.
Such a person was George Jacob Holyoake, the founder of the
British Secular Movement, and, in the earliest years of the
enterprise, the most conspicuous figure among the Secularists. A
frail little man with weak eyes and a thin voice, Holyoake was
nevertheless by nature a crusader. Yet, in his crusading efforts
he ordinarily manifested pronounced courtesy and restraint
towards opponents of his aims. In fact, his manner of dealing
with persons in the opposite camp was so agreeable that they
themselves often referred to it as praiseworthy. On the other
hand, Holyoake was sharply critical of most of the Secular
leaders, and at times even tended to side with "the enemy"
against them. Especially was this the case after he ceased to be
the controlling influence in the Secular Movement. Whatever the
justification may have been for his attitude toward his
colleagues, it was resented by them, all the more so because it
stood out in contrast with his manner toward the opponentes of
Secularism; and when he finally died they expressed little
regret. Nevertheless, it would be erroneous to assume either that
Holyoake did not possess superior personal qualities or that he
was not of great value to the Secular Movement. His qualities as
an individual, as we have already intimated, were of a high
order. Perhaps Spencer placed a true estimate on them when he
said: "Not dwelling upon his intellectual capacity, which is
high, I would emphasize my appreciation of his courage,
sincerity, truthfulness, philanthropy, and unwavering
perseverance. Such a combination of qualities it will I think, be
difficult to find." [Quoted in David Duncan, "Life and Letters of
Herbert Spencer" (1908), p. 468.] As for Holyoake's services to
Bank of Wisdom
Box 926, Louisville, KY 40201
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A HISTORY OF THE BRITISH SECULAR MOVEMENT
the Secular Movement, though it is true that he was not
altogether successful in his efforts at organizing and
consolidating the enterprise, he gave the undertaking its initial
impetus and played a truly important part in Secularist activity,
especially in the earlier years of the Secular Movement, both as
a forceful journalist and pamphleteer and (despite his physical
handicaps) as an effective speaker. And his work in the Secular
Movement was merely a part of what, from first to last, he was
able to do. As we shall see, he lectured and wrote in the
interest of Owenism, and was for a time one of the Chartist
leaders. He rendered distinguished service as a champion and
historian of the Cooperative Movement. He helped the Rationalist
Press Association to get started. No one will deny that Holyoake
served well the cause of popular reform.
Holyoake was born at Birmingham on April 13, 1817. He early
became conscious of the problem of poverty; for, though the wages
of his father, who was an employee in a Birmingham foundry, were
supplemented for a time by profits from a button-making shop
operated by the boy's mother, the income of the family was
scarcely sufficient for more than the bare necessities.
Holyoake's father had "a pagan mind" and was indifferent to
religion; but his mother was a woman of piety and imbued her son
so effectively with religious fervor that he assiduously attended
various nonconformist places of worship and was spoken of as the
"angel child."
The, educational training which Holyoake received was
definitely limited. He attended a dame's school for a period, but
was compelled to spend much of his time in a tinner's shop
attaching handles to lanterns; and inasmuch as at the age of 9 he
began a 13-year period of full-time work as a whitesmith in the
foundry that employed his father, his opportunities for
educational pursuits became still more restricted. Nevertheless,
in 1833, he entered the Birmingham Mechanics' Institute, where he
remained for five years, and where, through persistent night
study, he made an impressive record.
Certain of Holyoake's professors and fellow-students at the
Mechanics' Institute were staunch disciples of Robert Owen, who,
having abandoned the technique he originally followed of trying
to achieve reform through the aid of upper-class persons, was now
conducting one of his working class movements; and one of these
academic associates of Holyoake, Frederick Hollick, a student,
endeavored to win Holyoake to the cause of Owenism, but was not
even able to persuade him to attend a single Owenite meeting. The
prospective convert did, however, attend such a meeting, though
most unintentionally. Upon hearing from his associates that a
clergyman whom he greatly admired, Robert Hall, was to speak on a
certain date, Holyoake put in an appearance, only to learn, to
his astonishment, that he had misunderstood the name of the
speaker, who was not Robert Hall, but Robert Owen. Owen proved to
be less scandalizing than Holyoake had supposed, and the young
man, desiring to become better acquainted with Owenism so that he
Bank of Wisdom
Box 926, Louisville, KY 40201
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A HISTORY OF THE BRITISH SECULAR MOVEMENT
might defend it against what he conceived to be the false
comments of certain of his friends, began to attend Owenite
meetings. The upshot was that in 1840 he definitely affiliated
himself with the Movement.
Early in 1839 Holyoake had abandoned his employment at the
Birmingham foundry. Later in the same year he had worked for a
brief period as a guide at an exhibition of machinery which was
being held at Birmingham. In the early autumn of 1839 he had
become an instructor at the Birmingham Mechanics' Institute, but
had surrendered his position under pressure, in January, 1840,
after having been denounced by religious persons for Owenite
leanings. In the course of the next few months he had taught in a
private school, served as bookkeeper for a venetian blind maker,
written advertisements, and given private lessons in mathematics.
At the time when he joined the Owenite Movement he was
unemployed, and he promptly began to devote his entire time to
its service.
Holyoake's experiences as one of the disciples of Robert
Owen were certainly not lacking in variety. At the outset he
accepted a lectureship with the Branch at Worcester. After he had
served in this capacity for several months, the Congress of 1841
appointed him "Station Lecturer" and sent him to take up his
duties at Sheffield. His services as lecturer were soon, however,
brought temporarily to a close, thanks to the interference of the
clergy with the Owenite Movement. Owen's plans for reform had
always met with a certain opposition from the clergy, but
beginning in 1846 their hostility took a new and more powerful
form, inasmuch as they now sought to strike at the Movement by
crippling its revenues. Seeing that the "Socialists," as the
Owenites were popularly called, took money at their meeting-house
doors on Sunday, they invoked Parliamentary legislation
forbidding any but religious bodies from doing so, and demanded
that the Owenite lecturers either desist or make profession, on
oath, of the Protestant religion. The Central Board of the
Movement favored making the declaration, and some of the
lecturers did so. Holyoake, however, along with certain others,
refused to take the oath. The result to Holyoake was that the
Owenite authorities requested and secured his resignation.
Inasmuch as at this time his fellow-Owenite, Charles Southwell,
who, with other followers of Owen, had defiantly started the
anti-theological Oracle of Reason, was in prison for a
provocative article he had written in the fourth number of that
paper, Holyoake took over the editorship of the periodical, and,
throwing off the last vestiges of his religious belief, carried
the paper forward in a militantly rationalist fashion. But he did
not do so for long, as he soon met a fate similar to that which
had befallen Southwell. Upon completing a lecture at Cheltenham
he was goaded by a clerical member of his audience into making
what was construed as a blasphemous remark, [Holyoake made the
remark upon being told that he had spoken of our duty to man but
had said nothing about our duty to God. His words were: "I appeal
to your heads and your pockets if we are not too poor to have a
God. If poor men cost the state so much, they would be put, like
officers, upon half pay. I think that while our distress lasts it
would be wise to do the same with the Deity."] and was
Bank of Wisdom
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A HISTORY OF THE BRITISH SECULAR MOVEMENT
consequently compelled to serve a sentence of six months in the
Gloucester jail. After his release he was permitted to resume
lecturing -- at Worcester. But he soon went to London, where he
became Secretary to "Branch 53" and where, in December, 1843, he
founded, with his fellow-Owenite, M.Q. Ryall, the freethought
Movement. After 15 months the Movement failed, however, from an
inadequate circulation, and Holyoake accepted the post of
lecturer to the disciples of Owen in Glasgow. But he resigned
shortly afterwards and returned to London, where he founded, in
1846, the 'Reasoner' as an Owenite organ.
In the course of time Holyoake became dissatisfied with the
Owenite Movement as a medium for his activity. For one thing, the
enterprise assumed what he came to conceive as an unsatisfactory
character. When Holyoake joined the undertaking, it was partly
concerned with promoting the establishment of a network of
cooperative communities. But it was also, in some measure, an
ethical movement. Not only did it endeavor to imbue the public
with the social morality requisite to the introduction of the
utopian villages; it looked forward to the time when the ideal
neighborhoods would themselves provide an environment conducive
to the further improvement of morals. Finally, when Holyoake
became connected with the Owenite enterprise, the movement was in
an incidental way fighting the churches as forces impeding the
achievement of its aims. As the years passed, however, the
Owenite crusade took on an altered character. When the clergy
carried their opposition to Owenism to the point of interfering
with its revenue, the Movement began to devote pronounced
attention to anti-religious agitation. And when, in 1845,
Queenwood, the embodiment of one of the utopian communities to
which the Socialists looked forward, failed, blasting all hope
for an early achievement of their social goal, the Owenites
virtually allowed the community ideal to lapse, while at the same
time they permitted the ethical aspects of their program, with
which it was associated, to fall into the background; so that the
Movement became primarily an anti-religious endeavor. Now
Holyoake contributed to the altered character of the Socialist
enterprise, first by plunging into the freethought campaign and
later by abandoning the community ideal and its attendant ethical
program. Nevertheless, he came to feel that the modified program
was inadequate.
But there was another reason why Holyoake ceased to be
satisfied with the Owenite Movement. In the five or six years
following the abandonment of the Queenwood experiment, the
Movement declined alarmingly. It broke up into its constituent
bodies, and the individual societies either actually ceased to
exist or suffered a perilous thinning of their ranks.
As the Owenite Movement became less satisfactory, Holyoake
began to devote a good deal of attention to Chartism. For a good
many years he had been a Chartist in an incidental sort of way,
and now he became active in the Chartist cause. In 1848, for a
time, he served with W.J. Linton as coeditor of a short-lived
Chartist paper -- the Cause of the People -- and subsequently
served on the executive body of the Chartist Union. But organized
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Box 926, Louisville, KY 40201
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A HISTORY OF THE BRITISH SECULAR MOVEMENT
Chartism itself turned out to be unsatisfactory. It, too, began
rapidly to decline, and, in addition, Holyoake fell into
disagreement with certain of the leaders over matters of policy.
Under this combination of circumstances Holyoake cast about
for new reformist opportunities. In doing so, though he naturally
borrowed from his past, he utilized not primarily his Chartist
experience (though Chartism, as we shall see, did influence one
item in the program he formulated), but his experience, with
Owenism. Here is the way he proceeded. Starting with the
realization that in its best days the Owenite Movement was
essentially an ethical and social enterprise and accordingly was
primarily constructive rather than critical in character, he
moved on to the conception that freethought itself had a positive
as well as a negative aspect -- that in fact it could serve as
the basis of a system of ethics under which the natural order of
the freethinker would be the proper sphere of ethical goals, and
the improvement of man's life here on earth by rational means the
sum and substance of man's duty.
The point of view that Holyoake thus hit upon satisfied him
as the thing he had felt the need of, and he determined to make
it the central impulse in a fresh start toward a powerful,
organized undertaking. Accordingly, giving it the name
"Secularism," rather than some anti-religions term, in order to
emphasize its constructive character, he took steps, at the end
of 1851, toward the inauguration of a new movement. In doing so,
he published a statement of the doctrines of Secularism,
announced the formation of a "Central Secular Society" in London,
the mission of which was the promotion of concerted action, and
invited persons desirous of forming, promoting, or constituting
Secular societies to communicate with the "Secretary" of the
Central Secular Society, in the person of himself.
Holyoake's action led to concrete results. In the course of
the year 1852, scattered "Owenite" societies, to which Holyoake
had long lectured, styled themselves "Secular" bodies, and
interested individuals formed Secular societies here and there;
so that the British Secular Movement was brought into existence.
[G.J. Holyoake, "Sixty Years of an Agitator's Life" (1892), I,
10-225; G.J. Holyoake, "Bygones Worth Remembering" (1905), I, 16
and 211-245; Joseph McCabe, "life and Letters of George Jacob
Holyoake" (1908) I, 1-118 and 211; "Reasoner," June 17, 1846, to
December 29, 1852, passim.]
CHAPTER II
A PERIOD OF FREE ASSOCIATION
BASIC FEATURES
In the period extending from 1852 to 1866 the organization
of the Secular Movement was incomplete. There were, of course,
the various organized local Secular societies, and there were, as
we shall see, certain factors which tended to bind the
Secularists together nationally in a psychological sense. But
there was no successful or enduring national organization. In
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Box 926, Louisville, KY 40201
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A HISTORY OF THE BRITISH SECULAR MOVEMENT
this respect the Secular Movement of these early years stood over
in contrast with organized Secularism in the decades that
followed. Such being the case it seems appropriate to discuss
this period of loose association as a unit in itself.
Because of Secularist dissension, the nature of which will
later be explained, every effort made during these early years in
the interest of a national union of Secularists ended in failure.
Nothing whatever in this direction was accomplished by the
"Central Secular Society," which soon disappeared from the scene.
Secularist Conferences, meeting in 1852, 1855, and 1860, were
able to establish respectively a "preliminary" constitution, a
"provisional" committee, and a "central" committee, but all these
proved abortive. A "Propagandist Committee," which was formed in
1856, and a "College of Propaganda," which was matured in 1857,
both faded out after simply offering a few suggestions. In 1861 a
"National Secular Association" was actually proclaimed; but it
never became operative, and after some three months it
disappeared in a cloud of bitterness. ["Reasoner," 1852-1857,
passim. "National Reformer," 1860-1862, passim.]
Though lacking a national organization, the early
Secularists were in some measure bound together. The "British
Secular Institute," a publishing and printing concern operated in
London by Holyoake, and spoken of by him as the Secularist
headquarters, was to a certain extent a unifying factor, as were
the periodical and other publications associated with the Secular
Movement. Then, too, the outstanding Secularist personalities,
such as Holyoake and Charles Bradlaugh, identified as they were
with the Secular Movement as a whole, were in some measure a
binding force. Above all, however, the Secularists were bound
together -- in so far as they were bound -- by their common
devotion to Secularist principles.
The various local societies were effectively organized. Each
had its body of elected officials. In general, there were the
President, Vice-President, Secretary, and Treasurer, along with a
Committee. A considerable number of these local Secular societies
existed. They were located in London, Manchester, Liverpool,
Birmingham, Leeds, Newcastle, Sheffield, Leicester, Edinburgh,
and other towns and cities in various parts of the country.
[NOTE: The following societies (and possibly others) were in
existence during a part or all of the early period of Secularist
history:
London societies: Deptford and Greenwich Secular Society;
East End Branch of the London Secular Society; East London
Secular Society; Frances Street Society; Hackney Hall Society;
Hoxton Class Room Society; Independent Secular Society; John
Street Branch of the London Secular Society; King's Cross secular
Society; London Secular Society; Marleybone and Paddington
Secular Society; North London Secular Institute; Paddington
Branch of the London Secular Society; Philpot Street Society; St,
George's Hall Society; South london Institute: Temple, Secular
Society; West End Branch of the London Secular Society; Woolwich
Branch of the London Secular Society.
Bank of Wisdom
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A HISTORY OF THE BRITISH SECULAR MOVEMENT
Provincial societies: Abergavenny Secular Society; Ashton-
under-Lyne Secular Society; Bedlington Secular Society;
Birmingham Secular Society; Blackburn Secular Society; Bolton
Secular Society; Bradford Secular Society; Brighton Secular
Society; Bristol Secular Society; Burnley Branch of the Secular
Society; Bury Secular Society; Colne Branch of the Secular
Society; Dewsbury Secular Association; Doncastle Secular Society;
Durham Secular Society; Edinburgh Secular Society; Huddersfield
Secular Society; Hull Secularist Society; Keighley Secular
Society; leeds Secular Society; Leicester Secular Society; Leigh
Secular Society; Liverpool Secular Society; Manchester Secular
Society; Newcastle Secular Society; Northampton Secular Society;
Nottingham Secular Society; Oldham Secular Society; Over Darwen
Secular Society; Plymouth and Devenport Secular Society; Preston
Society; Redditch Secular Society; Rochdale Secular Society;
Sheffield Secular Association; Stafford Society; Stepney Society;
Sunderland Secular Society; Todmorden Secular Society; Wigin
Secular Society; Yarmouth Secular Society. "Reasoner," passim;
"National Reformers," passim; "Investigator," passim.]
A set or doctrines for the early Secularists was proclaimed
by Holyoake, as we have seen, when he announced the formation of
the "Central Secular Society and urged the founding of a network
of local Secular bodies in affiliation with it. Inasmuch as it
was in response to this utterance, and the announcement and
invitation accompanying it, that bodies calling themselves
"Secular" societies sprang into existence, the statement may be
accepted as an expression of the views held by the early
Secularists,
The "Principle" of the society is defined as "the
recognition of the 'Secular' sphere as the province of man," and
its "Aims" are said to be:
"1. To explain that science is the sole Providence of Man --
a truth which is calculated to enable a man to become master of
his own Fate, and protects him from dependencies that allure him
from his duty, unnerve his arm in difficulty, and betray him in
danger.
"2. To establish the proposition that Morals are independent
of Christianity; in other words, to show that wherever there is a
moral end proposed, there is a secular path to it.
"3. To encourage men to trust Reason throughout, and to
trust nothing that Reason does not establish -- to examine all
things hopeful, respect all things probable, but rely upon
nothing without precaution which does not come within the range
of science and experience.
"4. To teach men that the universal fair and open discussion
of opinion is the highest guarantee of public truth -- that only
that theory which is submitted to that ordeal is to be regarded,
since only that which endures it can be trusted.
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"5, To claim for every man the fullest liberty of thought
and action compatible with the possession of like liberty by
every other person.
"6. To maintain -- that, from the uncertainty as to whether
the inequalities of human condition will be compensated for in
another life -- It is the business of intelligence to rectify
them in this world; and consequently, that instead of indulging
in speculative worship of supposed superior beings, a generous
man will devote himself to the patient service of known inferior
natures, and the mitigation of harsh destiny, so that the
ignorant may be enlightened and the low elevated." [G.J.
Holyoake, "Organization of Freethinkers" (1852)]
From what has been said earlier in these pages, it will be
observed that the foregoing program had its roots in the
organized movement founded by Robert Owen, and that it basically
resembled the philosophy of Owenism in being essentially ethical
in character and having for its purpose the improvement of man's
well-being on earth by natural means.
While Secularism was indebted primarily to the Owenite
Movement, its conception of morality owed something to
Utilitarianism, Thanks largely to the efforts of James Mill and
others, notably John Stuart Mill, the Benthamite doctrine that
all behavior is moral which is conducive to "the greatest
happiness of the greatest number" had created a considerable stir
by the time of the founding of the Secularist Movement, and
Holyoake was one of those who had felt its influence, as is
indicated by the fact that from 1846 to 1848 he published a
"Utilitarian Record" in connection with the Reasoner. In
recognition of the debt of Secularism to Utilitarianism,
Holyoake, at the end of 1851, referred to the persons composing
the "Central Secular Society" as "Utilitarians." ["Reasoner,"
1846-1848 and January 14, 1852.]
Despite the striking similarity between the fundamental
Secularist doctrines and Auguste Comte's conception of a
positive, or scientific, morality devoted to the promotion of
human progress on earth, Secularism apparently owes nothing
directly to Comte. Holyoake seems to have gained a first-hand
acquaintanceship with Comte's writings, from "the early sheets"
of Harriet Martineau's condensed English version of Comte's Cours
de philosophie positive, in 1853 -- several months after the
launching of the Secular Movement. In an indirect sense, Holyoake
may have owed something to Positivism, inasmuch as Positivist
ideas (unacknowledged as Comte's) were circulating in England
when Secularism was being worked out. Holyoake's reference to the
subject, in May, 1853, when he announced the forthcoming
publication of Miss Martineau's treatise, is suggestive. "I find
Comte's ideas," he says, "cropping up wherever I look on the
surface of our field of knowledge; but it is a rare thing to hear
his name. It is time that there should be an end to this. The
book and the man are too remarkable to be ignored; and we should
decline the shame of benefiting by his ideas, and taking the
credit of them." ["Reasoner," May 25, 1853. See also the
"Reasoner" for November 2, 1853.] Whatever the facts may be as
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to Holyoake's indebtedness to the Positive philosophy, he freely
acknowledged the similarity between Secularism and Positivism, In
November, 1853, when announcing the appearance of the Martineau
volumes, he declared, "The 'Positive Philosophy of M. Comte' is
... a scientific Bible of Secularism." [Ibid., November 30,
1853.] And from July 6, 1856, to December 30, 1857, he used as a
subtitle for the Reasoner, which, as we shall see, he was then
editing as a Secularist periodical, the words "Journal of
Freethought and Positive Philosophy." [Ibid., for period
mentioned.]
A MASTERFUL CONVERT
Almost at the outset organized Secularism attracted to its
banner a man who was of profound significance both in shaping the
policy of the Secular Movement and in furthering its aims.
Charles Bradlaugh was indeed a powerful and impressive figure.
Large in stature, big-boned, and solidly built, be possessed, in
his best years, such amazing physical strength that he could
grapple successfully with three or four ordinary men. He had,
too, a rather large head, solemn, resolute features, and a
strong, masculine voice. Sincerity, earnestness, and strength of
character shone in his face, and his mind, though not original,
was a keen one. Combined in him with these characteristics and
qualities were a strong dislike for oppression, obscurantism, and
intolerance, and an unwavering sympathy for the downtrodden
masses. At the same, time, he possessed distinguished qualities
of leadership, and was a truly great orator. In fact, his
oratorical ability was probably greater than that of any of his
contemporaries with the exception of Gladstone. Under favorable
conditions he could sway an audience almost at will, arousing in
it the wildest enthusiasm for whatever he was advocating. As a
statesman and Member of Parliament, too, Bradlaugh was
distinguished, not merely because of his actual legislative
achievements, but because of his integrity and his almost
unbelievable industry; and the House of Commons, which for more
than five years refused to permit him to take his seat,
eventually expunged its exclusion proceedings from the record.
Bradlaugh's great powers of oratory, his simple sincerity, and
his talents as a leader gave him a hold upon his followers such
as few men have ever had. Many ordinary workmen not distinguished
for courage or bravery stood ready, if need be, to risk life and
limb for him, and on more than one occasion might have done so
had they not been restrained by Secularist leaders. Yet,
Bradlaugh was no demagogue, but a conscientious exponent of what
he believed to be genuine reform. And it should not be overlooked
(despite opinions to the contrary) that in his advocacy of reform
he followed a constructive as well as a destructive course,
promoting the positive principles of Secularism as well as
engaging in negative criticism. Indeed, if the phrase "Bradlaugh
the Iconoclast" might be correctly applied to him, he might just
as properly be designated as "Bradlaugh the Republican," or
"Bradlaugh the Educational Reformer," or "Bradlaugh, Friend of
the Masses," or, as was done a few years ago by some of his
admirers, "Bradlaugh, Champion of Liberty." [Centenary
Committee, "Champion of Liberty: Charles Bradlaugh" (1933).] It
is not strange that, in the light of such an extraordinary array
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of qualities and interests, Gladstone described Bradlaugh as "a
distinguished man," [Quoted in John Morley, "Life of William
Ewart Gladstone" (1903), III, 21.] or that Bernard Shaw declared
of him, "He was a hero, a giant who dwarfed everything around
him, a terrific personality." [Quoted in Centenary Committee,
"Champion of Liberty: Charles Bradlaugh" (1933), P. 50.]
The son of a law clerk who married a nursemaid, Bradlaugh
was born in impoverished circumstances on September 26, 1833, in
Hoxton, London. His formal schooling came to an end when he was
but 11 years of age, and the education that he subsequently
received was secured through his own unaided efforts. Shortly
after leaving school Bradlaugh obtained work as an office boy at
the law offices where his father was employed; but, at the age of
14, he procured more lucrative employment as wharf clerk and
cashier with a firm of coal merchants.
The boy's religious evolution was, to say the least, an
impassioned one. At the Church of St. Peter's, in Hackney Road,
where the Rev. John Graham Packer was the incumbent, young
Bradlaugh started out as an eagerly responsive pupil, and soon
became a, Sunday-school teacher. Difficulties, however, arose. In
studying, at Packer's request, the Thirty-nine Articles of the
Church of England and the four Gospels, in anticipation of being
confirmed by the Bishop of London, the young scholar found
discrepancies which troubled him. He asked for advice and
assistance in the matter from the Rev. Packer, but Packer,
instead of aiding the boy, wrote a letter to Charles Bradlaugh,
Senior, denouncing his son's inquiries as atheistical, and then
suspended young Bradlaugh for three months from his duties as
teacher. In the midst of his religious perplexities Bradlaugh
began, in 1848, to visit open-air meetings in Bonner's Fields,
where anti-theological discourses were delivered and discussed.
At first he replied to speakers with arguments in support of
Christianity; but in time he came to admit that his opponents
made out the best case, and ultimately began to give freethought
lectures himself.
While still doubtful on certain points concerning religion,
Bradlaugh sent to Packer a copy of Robert Taylor's Diegesis.
Whereupon, in conjunction with the boy's father, Packer informed
the young heretic that unless he recanted within three days the
clergyman and the father would have him deprived of his situation
at the coal dealer's establishment. Believing, rightly or
wrongly, that the threat would be carried out, Charles Bradlaugh,
Junior, on the third day, packed his few belongings and left both
his employment and his home.
For several months young Bradlaugh endeavored to earn a
living by selling first coal and then braces, but finding himself
unable to do so he enlisted in the 7th Dragoon Guards and was
sent to Ireland. He grew tired of army life, however, and in
1853, he used a portion of a legacy from his great-aunt to
purchase his release. Upon returning to London, the ex-soldier
obtained work from a solicitor, originally as an errand boy and
later as a clerk.
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As a result of his activities in connection with open-air
freethought meetings in the period before he joined the army,
Bradlaugh had met and become a friend of Holyoake's brother,
Austin, and through him had made the acquaintance of the more
widely-known George Jacob. Now that he was a civilian once more
his propagandist impulses again had an opportunity to assert
themselves; and, recalling the old days, he moved in the
direction of these men. Finding at hand the newly-begun Secular
Movement, with which they were identified, he took his place in
its ranks.
For a period of about 16 years, Bradlaugh's services to the
Movement were usually on a part-time basis; but finally,
beginning in 1870, after a number of disappointing connections as
a law clerk and business associate, he devoted undivided
attention to the cause for a prolonged period.
In the earlier stages of his Secularist career Bradlaugh
wrote and spoke as "Iconoclast." He began publicly to use his
true name upon becoming a candidate for parliament in 1868.
[Hypitia Bradlaugh Bonner, "Charles Bradlaugh" (1894). I, 1-301;
J.M. Robertson, "Charles Bradlaugh" (1920), pp. 1-20; A.S.
Headingley, "Biography of Charles Bradlaugh" (1880), pp. 1-132;
Charles Bradlaugh, "Autobiography', (1873), pp. 1-9.]
LITERATURE
The early Secularists endeavored to further their cause by
issuing and distributing various publications. Their activities
in this direction included, for one thing, the patting out of a
number of periodicals. The first of these in the field was the
Reasoner, which, as has been seen, was founded by Holyoake in
1846 as a journal of Owenism. Holyoake's changing outlook in the
period from 1846 to the end of 1851 was paralleled by a
corresponding change in the character of the Reasoner, so that
when the Secular Movement got under way in 1852 the paper easily
took its place as a Secularist organ. As such, under the
continued editorship of Holyoake, it placed primary emphasis upon
the direct propagation of Secularist principles, although
articles often appeared in its pages condemning theological ideas
and institutions as the major impediments to Secularism. The
Reasoner was issued weekly. In 1861, because of financial
difficulties, it went out of existence. ["Reasoner," all
numbers.]
The second periodical to make its appearance within the
Secularist Movement was the 'Investigator,' which was founded in
1854. Edited successively by Robert Cooper, who had gone through
the Owenite Movement, "Anthony Collins" (W.H. Johnson), and
Bradlaugh, the Investigator devoted primary attention to
attacking the Churches, on the ground of their constituting the
most formidable barriers to Secularism. The paper was issued once
a month until March, 1859, after which it appeared twice monthly.
From the first to last financial losses were incurred in the
conduct of the journal, and in 1859 it ceased to exist.
["Investigator," all number.]
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The year 1860 saw the inauguration of the National Reformer,
a weekly journal which was destined to serve the Secularist cause
for more than 30 years. Although Bradlaugh founded the paper, he
was at first simply the largest shareholder, inasmuch as he
launched the enterprise through the formation of a joint-stock
company; but when, in 1862, as a result of financial
difficulties, the company was liquidated, he assumed complete
financial responsibility. The editorship of the National Reformer
was in the beginning shared by Bradlaugh and Joseph Barker, a
forceful ex-clergyman, but between the two men there speedily
arose bitter antagonism -- centering in the dislike which Barker
felt for Bradlaugh's advocacy of birth control -- which
threatened the interests of the journal and suggested the
desirability of a single editor. In consequence, the
shareholders, on August 26, 1861, dismissed both coeditors and
then bestowed the editorship solely on Bradlaugh, In 1863, when
beset by ill health, Bradlaugh turned over the editorship to his
sub-editor, John Watts, but in 1866, when the health of Watts
broke down, he took over the editorial duties again. The National
Reformer strove directly to advance the principles of Secularism,
but it did more; it fought indirectly for the Secularist cause by
waging continuous warfare against organized theology as the chief
obstacle that stood in the way of Secularism. ["National
Reformer," all numbers.]
Still other periodicals appeared on the scene. In 1861 the
'Counsellor,' a monthly journal similar to the Reasoner, was
started by Holyoake; but upon the completion, near the end of
1861, of an arrangement by which Holyoake was to furnish three
pages of copy each week to the 'National Reformer the newly-
founded paper was brought to a close. ["Counsellor," all numbers;
Charles Bradlaugh, "Secular Prospects," "National Reformer,"
November 16, 1861.]
In 1863 another paper was launched by Holyoake, the
undertaking being occasioned by the termination of the
arrangement by which Holyoake was to supply copy for the National
Reformer. The new periodical, which followed along the lines of
the Reasoner and the Counsellor, bore the name at first of the
'Secular World' and subsequently of the 'Reasoner.' It appeared
at varying intervals and came to an end after only about two
years of apparently impoverished existence." [The conditions
under which the arrangement between Holyoake and the "National
Reformer," were brought to an end are not clear.
"National Reformer," March 8, 1862, to September 26, 1863,
passim; Joseph McCabe, "Life and Letters of George Jacob
Holyoake" (1908), 1, 343-344; Hypatia Bradlaugh Bonner, "Charles
Bradlaugh" (1894), 1, 129-130; G.J. Holyoake, "Warpath of
Opinion" (189?), pp. 21-26.]
Besides bringing out periodical literature, the early
Secularists published great numbers of books and pamphlets. These
included works enunciating Secularist principles and treatises
containing doctrines of an anti-theological character. The books
and pamphlets which the Secularists published were ordinarily
written by persons within the Secularist Movement, but from time
to time masterpieces were issued which were from the pens of
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other secular-minded writers. A number of the Secularist
publications will be mentioned in connection with our discussion
of the propagandist activity carried on by the Secularists. [For
typical references to Secularist efforts in producing and
disseminating books and pamphlets see the "Reasoner December 7,
1853, and the "Investigator," October 1, 1858.]
Various concerns for the sale, or the printing and sale, of
literature considered helpful to the secularist cause were
operated in London by Secularists of the early years. At the
outset a publishing firm was conducted by the veteran reformer
James Watson. In the spring of 1853 Holyoake set up a news and
book agency, and later in the same year made an arrangement with
Watson through which Watson retired from business and Holyoake
purchased the Watson concern. The two businesses were now merged
by Holyoake into a book-selling and publishing enterprise at 147
Fleet Street -- a pretentious establishment usually referred to
as the "Fleet Street House." The venture was not financially
successful, however, despite assistance from numerous
Secularists, and in 1861 was terminated. During the remaining
years of the early period of Secularist history Holyoake's
brother, Austin, who had been connected with the Fleet Street
House, carried on a printing and publishing business, under the
name of "Austin and Company" ["Reasoner," May 11, 1853 - May 19,
1861, passim; William Kent, "London for Heretics" (1932), pp.
72-73; George Sexton, "John Watts," "National Reformer," November
11, 1866.
The publishing and book-selling establishment conducted by
G.J. Holyoake at 147 Fleet Street, and referred to by him at one
time or another as the "Fleet Street Secular Institution" or the
"British. Secular Institute" on the ground that it served as a
center of Secularist propaganda, evoked criticism from various
Secularists as being operated ostensibly in the interest of the
Secularist cause but actually for private gain. "Reasoner," May
11, 1853 - May, 19, 1861, passim; " Investigator," November, 1857
- June 16, 1858, passim; Charles Bradlaugh, "Freethought
Propaganda," "National Reformer." August 30, 1862; Joseph McCabe,
"Life and Letters of George Jacob Holyoake (1908), passim; G.J.
Holyoake, "Sixty Years of an Agitator's Life" (1892), II,
160-166; G.J. Holyoake, "English Secularism" (1896), p. 51.]
ASSEMBLAGES
The aims of the early Secularists were fostered likewise by
oral means. These took the form simply of meetings of one sort or
another. There were, to begin with, regular Sunday meetings in
the Secularist halls. Each of these exercises began with a
lecture and ended with a free-for-all discussion -- often an
animated one -- of the lecture. In discussing the various phases
of the Secular Program, the Secularist lectures really ranged
over a wide variety of subjects, including morals, public
affairs, biography, history, and science. This is abundantly
clear from the titles they selected, a few of which are: "The
Nature of Secularism and the Duties of Secularists"; "The Reform
Bill, Judged from the, Secular Stand-point"; "Women's Right to
the Franchise"; "Poverty and Its Relation to the Political
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Condition of the People"; "The Sunday, What It is and What It
Might Be"; "A Plea for Secular Education"; "Free Enquiry and Free
Speech"; "Life and Character of Thomas Paine"; "The New
Testament, Who Wrote It and What It Is Worth"; and "Science, the
Providence of Life." Among the Secularists who took a prominent
part in the work of lecturing at these meetings were the
following: Charles Bradlaugh, G.J. Holyoake, Mrs. Harriet Law,
John Maughan, and John Watts. Often the lectures at the meetings
were delivered by local speakers of the various societies; but
sometimes an interchange of lecturers was effected between
societies, and frequently such better-known London speakers as
Holyoake and Bradlaugh went on lecturing tours to the various
societies or prospective societies throughout the country."
There were also meetings centering in debates. Public
discussions between Secularists and persons who rejected the
principles of Secularism were persistently sought by Secularist
leaders; and, while Secularist challenges to debate were usually
ignored (especially by individuals in positions of high
authority), a considerable number of debates were held, Those who
debated with the Secularists were usually clergymen, though such
was by no means always the case. Among the Secularists who
participated in the debates were Charles Bradlaugh (who easily
outdistanced other Secularists in respect to the number of
debates engaged in), Robert Cooper, G.J. Holyoake, and John
Watts. Those who took part in debate against the Secularists
included the Rev. W. Barker; the Rev. Joseph Baylee; the Rev. Dr.
Brindley; Mr. Court, representing the Glasgow Protestant
Association; Thomas Cooper, an ex-freethinking "Lecturer on
Christianity"; the Rev. Brewin Grant; W. Hutchins, the subeditor
of the Wigan Examiner; the Rev. T. Lawson; Mr. Mackie, editor of
the Warrington Guardian; Robert Maholm, a representative of the
Irish Church Mission at Birmingham; the Rev. T.D. Matthias; the
Rev. J. Sinclair; Mr. Smart, a teacher at the Neilson Institute
in Paisley; and the Rev. Woodville Woodman. The Secularist
debates ordinarily hinged upon the question of the merit of
Secularism, or the merit of Christianity, or the relative merit
of Secularism and Christianity. Such titles as: "Is Secularism
inconsistent with Reason and the Moral Sense, and condemned by
experience?" and "Are the doctrines and precepts of Christianity,
as taught in the New Testament, calculated to benefit humanity?"
and "Whether is Christianity or Secularism best calculated to
promote human happiness?" are typical. Though many of the debates
were one-night affairs, some lasted four, five, or even six
nights. Secularist debates attracted much attention, as they were
often lively occasions. Large crowds were frequently in
attendance, and Holyoake tells us that a published report of a
debate held at London in 1853 between himself and the Rev. Brewin
Grant sold to the number of 45,900 copies." [G. J. Holyoake,
"English Secularism" (1896), p. 50. For examples of debates in
the earlier years of the Secular Movement see the following: G.J.
Holyoake and the Rev. Brewin Grant, "Discussion on Secularism'
(1854); Charles Bradlaugh and the Rev. T. Lawson, "Discussion on
the Question, Has Man A Soul?" (1861); and J.P. Adams,
"Discussion Between the Rev. J. Sinclair and Mr. J. Watts,"
"National Reformer," May 15, 1862. Many references to debates
appear in Secularist periodicals of the period, especially in the
"Reasoner."]
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Finally, during the mild seasons of the year a few open-air
meetings were held by the early Secularists in parks or other
unoccupied spaces of London and one or two other cities. On such
occasions a Secularist speaker delivered a discourse and engaged
in controversy with challengers. The Secularist outdoor meetings
were held on the strength of the belief that persons who would
object to entering a Secular hall would listen to Secularist
messages uttered in a square or field. The persons who conducted
the outdoor meetings were minor lecturers in the Secular
Movement. [See issues of the "Reasoner" and of the "National
Reformer" published during the early period of the Secularist
Movement for references to outdoor meeting. Examples of such
references are: "Reasoner," September 17, 1854, and "National
Reformer," June 16,1860.]
ADVANCING SECULARIST DOCTRINES
The Secularists of the early years carried on a persistent
campaign for the purpose of promoting the diffusion and
application of Secularist principles. For one thing, they
endeavored assiduously to promote a wide acceptance of the
doctrines indispensably associated with Secularism as a
philosophy. Carrying on in this respect a work similar to the
strictly ethical labors of the Utilitarians, the Owenites, and
the English Positivists, they frequently asserted, on the
platform and in articles and pamphlets, that it is man's duty to
promote the well-being of man upon earth; that, indeed, the very
essence of morality is the improvement of human conditions in the
present life; and that such improvement is possible only by
natural means. [See, as examples, the following: G.J. Holyoake,
"Secularism, the Practical Philosophy of the People" (1854);
Charles Bradlaugh. "Secularism," "National Reformer," August 24,
1861; and John Watts, "Secularism and Christianity," "National
Reformer," March 26, 1864.]
The propagation of Secularism as a conception by no means
exhausted the activity of the Secularists in the early years of
the Secular Movement. In fact, it constituted a small portion of
their endeavors. Not content with talking in general terms about
the advancement of human happiness, they sought to promote the
welfare of themselves and their fellows by working for the
achievement of specific goals in various departments of life.
They possessed, it is true, no synthetic scheme for the complete
organization of society in all its parts; but they did occupy
themselves with the improvement of various aspects of the social
order.
One of the things they did was to advocate governmental
reform. The arrangement by which the middle and upper classes of
the period, through the retention of hereditary elements in the
government and the exclusion of the majority from participation
in the suffrage, controlled matters essentially in their own
interests, was unsatisfactory to the Secularists, inasmuch as
they were among the despoiled. Under these circumstances
Secularist speakers and writers carried on a two-fold agitation.
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In the first place they embraced the tradition associated
most conspicuously with Thomas Paine and the French Revolution
and advocated the removal from the government of hereditary
institutions and the establishment of a, republic -- encouraged
in their effort, no doubt, by the inglorious reputation of the
first four Georges, by the popular apathy toward Queen Victoria
growing out of the Queen's secluded manner of living in the years
following the death (1861) of the prince consort, and by the
hatred of English liberals for the French Emperor Napoleon III.
Bradlaugh took the lead in the Secularist republican agitation,
and he condemned the undemocratic monarchy in no uncertain terms:
"We attack the Crown," he declared, "because, denying
hereditary rights to monarchs, we contend that the chief of a
nation should be voluntarily elected by the nation, and that the
national chieftainship should not be considered as a family
heritage. We affirm that the people form the only rightful source
of any authority, and that no monarch can be entitled to wield
any authority which is not derived from the people.
"We declare that any prince governing a nation without
having had the reins of government entrusted to him by the will
of the people, is a usurper of the nation's power. We attack the
Crown as long as it makes a pretense to exist 'by the Grace of
God,' instead of by the desire of the nation. [Charles Bradlaugh,
"Our Politics," "National Reformer," May 6, 1866. See also the
following: G.J. Holyoake, "Warpath of Opinion" (189?) pp. 73-74;
J.M. Robertson, "Charles Bradlaugh" (1920), pp. 36-37; Geoffrey
Dennis, "Coronation Commentary" (1937), pp. 13-16.]
At the same time, combining the doctrine of manhood
suffrage, which had come down from the 18th century and which had
found a place in the program of the Chartists (with whom Holyoake
had been associated), with the doctrine of woman suffrage, which
itself was an 18th century product, leading Secularists labored
to secure the vote for all mature persons without regard to sex.
To this end they gave aid, for one thing, to societies interested
in a less-thoroughgoing extension of the franchise than that
favored by the Secularists. In this connection, Holyoake served
on the executive council of the National Parliamentary and
Financial Reform Association, and both Holyoake and Bradlaugh, at
still later dates, not only supported the Northern Reform Union
but served as offerers in the National Reform League. Along with
all this, the Secularists were in some measure active under their
own banner. Bradlaugh, Holyoake, and Mrs. Harriet Law all wrote
and spoke on the subject (or some phase of it), and Holyoake, as
a special aid to the claims of women in the matter, issued as a
pamphlet Mrs. John Stuart Mill's articles entitled "Are Women Fit
for Politics?" and "Are Politics Fit for Women?" ["Reasoner,"
March 10, 1853, April 24, 1856, and March 3, 1857; Joseph McCabe,
"life and Letters of George Jacob Holyoake" (1908), II, 12;
Hypatia Bradlaugh Bonner, "Charles Bradlaugh" (1894), I, 120 and
128, and II (by J.M, Robertson), 168-169; J.M. Robertson,
"Charles Bradlaugh" (1920), pp. 36-37; G.J. Holyoake, "Sixty
Years of an Agitator's Life" (1892), I, 225; G.J. Holyoake,
"Working Class Representation: Its Conditions and Consequences"
(1868), p. 3.
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In 1958 Holyoake, took up a position somewhat at variance
with that indicated above. He came out in favor of an
"intelligence franchise" which would be extended to those men and
women who had passed a public examination in political economy
and English constitutional history. Holyoake's proposal was
endorsed, among the Secularists, by Joseph Barker. "Reasoner,"
December 12, 1858, and March 4, 1860; Joseph Baker, "The Fitness
Franchise," "National Reformer," May 12, 1860.
Holyoake manifested an interest, inherited from Robert Owen,
in women's rights in general. As early as 1847 he suggested the
desirability of systematic Feminist agitation by women, and in
the course of the early period of Secularist history he
occasionally wrote and spoke in advocacy of the rights of women.
Mrs. Harriet Law also advocated women's rights. "Reasoner,"
August 11, 1847, November 16, 1856, and May 31, June 7, June 14,
and June 21, 1857; John Watts, "Freethought in England,"
"National Reformer," November 5, 1964.]
The early Secularists were also active in the reform of
living conditions among the toiling masses. As laborers they were
greatly distressed by the poverty, insecurity, and monotony which
characterized the lives of the working masses of that day, and
they sought to effect an improvement.
In this connection, one of the things they undertook to
achieve was a "free and rational use of the Sunday," to the end
that those whose work kept them occupied for six days in the week
might not be prevented from securing needed recreation and
enlightenment on the one day of leisure, In their work of
broadening the use of the Sunday the Secularists exerted
themselves both as Secularists and as supporters of the National
Sunday League, which shared their aims in regard to the enlarged
use of the Sunday.
One way in which the Secularists endeavored to make the
Sunday more helpful to those who toiled was by an effort to
procure the opening on that day of such institutions of public
enlightenment and recreation as art galleries, museums, and
libraries. They wrote and spoke on the subject and on three
occasions sent petitions to Parliament for the opening on Sunday
of the British Museum, Crystal Palace, the National Gallery, and
similar buildings. ["Reasoner," December 22, 1852, to May 13,
1855, passim; G.J. Holyoake, "Sixty Years of an Agitator's Life"
(1892), II, 44; G.J. Holyoake, "Bygones Worth Remembering"
(1905), II, 108.]
As a further means of enriching the Sunday for the working
classes, the Secularists worked for Sunday music in the parks.
Their actions in this specific aspect of their Sunday program
began in 1856 when the Prime Minister, Lord Palmerston, on the
appeal of the Archbishop of Canterbury, countermanded an order he
had previously given for government bands to play on Sunday in
the London parks. Incensed at the reversal of policy, the
Secularists resolutely asserted themselves. Holyoake wrote public
letters on the subject to both the Prime Minister and the
Archbishop of Canterbury, and Secularists not only wrote and
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spoke in protest against the removal of the bands, but attended
great indignation meetings arranged by the Sunday League. When
all of this led to no results, the Secularists aided the League
in putting into effect an arrangement by which private bands,
financed by popular subscription and by the sale of programs and
seats, provided music on Sunday during the summer months in the
parks of London and other cities. ["Reasoner," April 27, 1856,
to October 9, 1859, passim; "The Sunday Bands," "National
Reformer," May 28, 1865; W. Palmer, "Sunday Music in the Parks,"
"National Reformer," May 21, 1865; Joseph McCabe, "Life and
Letters of George Jacob Holyoake" (1908), I, 284.
In still another way the Secularists endeavored to make the
Sunday a brighter day for themselves and others of the laboring
masses. During the holiday season they held excursions from time
to time on that day Sometimes a Secularist excursion was
conducted by a single society; but often a number of societies
would combine to arrange a trip to some designated point.
Secularist excursions were occasions for a variety of outdoor
games and diversions. Music, too, was enjoyed, and there were
speeches and a picnic lunch. Excursions were conducted, among
other places, to Hollingworth Lake, Broxbourne, Rye House,
Mottram, Forest Gate, Todmorden, High Beech, Richmond, Marsden
Rock, Riddlesdown, and Campsie Glen. [For typical references to
Secularist excursions, see the following: "Reasoner" August 24,
1853; "Investigator," August 1, 1859; "National Reformer," July
8, 1866.]
As a means at once of providing recreation and fostering
social feeling, the early Secularists also arranged for
themselves and their friends occasional Sunday or week-day
entertainments. At these affairs conversation, games, talks,
music, and dancing all found a place, and, of course, there were
refreshments. [Examples of the countless references in
Secularist periodicals to social Meetings are the following:
"Reasoner," November 5, 1854, and December 9. 1957: "National
Reformer," November 23, 1861, and "Secular Organization,"
"National Reformer," September 2, 1866.]
The Secularists of the early years made an effort, too, to
overcome as far as possible the woeful insecurity which in that
period oppressed the working classes. For this purpose they
maintained a "General Secular Benevolent Society." The
institution was founded by the London Secular Society, but it was
operated in the interest of Secularists throughout the country.
The funds of the association were raised by subscription, and
financial assistance was given to persons in distress. The
Society was enrolled under the Friendly Societies Act in 1859.
["Reasoner," September 17, 1854. to June 2, 1860, passim;
"National Reformer." June 2, 1860, to October 29, 1865, passim.]
Perhaps the most, basic work of the early Secularists in
their effort at social reform was the activity they carried on
for the elimination of the poverty that weighed so heavily upon
the laboring classes of those days.
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For a key to the solution of the problem of poverty, the
Secularists turned to the past. At the beginning of the 19th
century Thomas Malthus, in his 'Essay on the Principle of
Population,' had asserted that inasmuch as man's ability to
reproduce himself exceeds the power of nature to provide him with
the means of subsistence, human misery ensues unless man's
reproductive activities are curbed through the delay of marriage.
Francis Place. a generation later, accepted Malthus's doctrine
that the curtailment of human reproduction is the only means of
preventing the suffering attendant upon a deficiency of
nourishment, and, rejecting the Malthusian proposal as to
marriage, went on to formulate the principle that the proper
check to reproduction is through contraception. Place did not,
however, stop here. Aided by Richard Carlile, he carried on a
campaign among the people, telling them that the avoidance of
poverty is possible through family limitation, and acquainting
them with the nature and proper use of birth-control facilities.
The Secularists took over these Neo-Malthusian principles
championed by Place and Carlile as a remedy for poverty, and
carried forward the agitation they had begun." [Norman S. Himes.
"Medical History of Contraception" (1936), pp. 209-236; C.V.
Drvsdale, "Bradlaugh and Neo-Malthusianism." "Champion of
Liberty: Charles Bradlaugh" (1933); Annie Besant, "The Law
Population" (1877); Charles Bradlaugh and Annie Besant,
"Publishers, Preface to Dr, Knowlton's 'Fruits of Philosophy
"National Reformer," March 25, 1977.]
The leadership in the Secularist birth-control agitation was
taken by Bradlaugh. He early spoke in favor of contraception, and
upon the appearance of the 'National Reformer' he committed that
journal to its advocacy. In 1861 he announced the formation of a
"Malthusian League" to further the cause. During the next few
years he wrote several times on the subject. In an article in the
National Reformer he declared, "A terrible error has been
permitted to go forth to the world, clothed with the authority of
divine command to humankind. The writer of Genesis says, 'Be
fruitful, and multiply, and replenish the earth,' but the Bible
nowhere teaches that the natural rate of the increase of
population is in excess of the rate of increase of the means of
subsistence." [Charles Bradlaugh "The Malthusian League,"
"National Reformer," August 22, 1863.] In a pamphlet, Jesus,
Shelley, and Malthus (1861), he suggested that poverty should
neither be extolled as a virtue nor merely denounced as an evil,
but should be wiped out -- by Neo-Malthusian means. In a pamphlet
entitled Poverty: Its Effect Upon the Political Condition of the
People (1863), he contended that political freedom could be
achieved by the masses only to the degree that they were able to
divest themselves of poverty; but inasmuch as poverty was the
result of overpopulation, it could be eliminated through the
prevention of an excessive number of births. In a third pamphlet,
Why Do Men Starve? (1865), he asserted that they did so because
they were ignorant of the great Malthusian law of population, In
still another pamphlet, Labour's Prayer (1865), he maintained
that though the workers prayed to God without avail for relief
from poverty, they could secure relief through exercising a
degree of caution in increasing their numbers. Bradlaugh's birth-
control activities were accompanied by the efforts of other
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Secularists. Opposition to the agitation arose, however, from
Joseph Barker and others within the Secularist body. Possibly
because of this fact, the activity of the Secularists in the
interest of contraception tended in the last days of the early
era of Secularist history to become quiescent. Articles in the
National Reformer dwindled. Lectures became infrequent. Fresh
pamphlets ceased to appear. The Malthusian League all but
flickered out. ["National Reformer," June 14, 1860, to June 17,
1866, passim; Charles Bradlaugh, "Jesus, Shelley, and Malthus"
(1861); Charles Bradlaugh, "Poverty: Its Effect Upon the,
Political Condition of the People" (1963); Charles Bradlaugh,
"Why Do Men Starve?" (1865); Charles Bradlaugh, "Labour's Prayer"
(1965); Joseph Burker, "Modern Skepticism: A Life Story" (1874).]
The labors of the Secularists in the interest of political
and social betterment during the early years of the Secular
Movement were paralleled by Secularist efforts for the reform of
education. The system of church-controlled schools prevailing in
the era did not satisfy the Secularists, both because it failed
to provide training for all and because it called for the
inculcation of religious dogmas; and they gave their
dissatisfaction appropriate expression by working to promote
universal education which would involve instruction exclusively
"in matters and duties pertaining to this life,"
As one part of this undertaking, the Secularists endeavored
to bring about a state-operated school system which would afford
strictly Secular education for the entire population. They not
only wrote and spoke as Secularists in the interest of an
educational system "free from the dogmatism of creeds," but
supported the agitation of a Manchester association, known as
"The Friends of Secular Education," which was composed of persons
who were not identified with the Secularist body -- though in
doing so the Secularists acted unobtrusively, lest they give
occasion to religious opponents of Secular education to declare
the Manchester movement "Infidel." ["Reasoner," June 2, 1852, to
August 19, 1857; G.J. Holyoake, "Secularism, the Practical
Philosophy of the People" (1954), pp. 11-12; Charles Bradlaugh
and G.J. Holyoake, "Secularism, Science and Atheism" (1870),
passim.]
As the other phase of their work in behalf of Secular
education, the Secularists operated Secular schools of their own
-- no doubt with the expectation that they would be allowed to
lapse with the advent of a national system of schools providing
Secular instruction. Some of the Secularist schools gave day or
night instruction on week days, while others took the form of
Sunday schools, with classes usually in both the morning and
afternoon. Though the curricula varied, courses were given, in
one school or another, in the elementary subjects, in history and
science, and in the arts. Each school was attached to and
maintained by one of the various local Secular societies. In the
course of the period of Secularist history under discussion, at
least five or six schools were operated in London, and one each
in Birmingham, Glasgow, Rochdale, Halifax, Ashton-under-Lyne,
Huddersfield, Keighley, and possibly other places. Instruction in
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A HISTORY OF THE BRITISH SECULAR MOVEMENT
the Secularist schools was ordinarily made available to children
and adults alike. ["Reasoner," March 4, 1852, to December 9,
1857, passim; "National Reformer," September 7, 1861, to August
26, 1866, passim.]
Of the several campaigns waged by the early Secularists in
their efforts to be of service in achieving improvement in
various departments of the social order, there is left for
discussion their struggle for the removal of obstructions and
dangers to intellectual freedom that remained from an earlier day
or were revived in their own -- obstructions and dangers which
were operative primarily against the working classes. This fight
they carried on partly by means of efforts looking to the
promotion among the people of attitudes unfriendly to all such
dangers and obstructions. Thus with tongue and pen they pleaded
the cause of freedom of thought in general. Holyoake, for
example, once declared:
"Free inquiry ... is the first condition of progress.
All men may not be clever logicians; but their errors far
oftener arise from omitting to inquire than from error in
reasoning, They take so much for granted, that thought has
no proper and pure materials to exercise itself upon. Why is
the finder of facts, and facts are the food of thought, and
thought is the master of progress. . ." ["Reasoner," March
11, 1855. See also "Reasoner," passim, and G.J. Holyoake,
"Secularism, the Practical Philosophy of the People"
(1854).]
Besides making general appeals for intellectual liberty, the
Secularists worked for its realization in various limited
spheres. They contended, to begin with, for the right, which
theoretically had already been won, of public meetings in the
parks; and Bradlaugh, in 1855, twice rendered extraordinary
service in the cause. The first instance occurred at a Hyde Park
mass meeting of lower-class Londoners which was being undertaken,
despite a prohibitory notice by Sir Richard Mayne, Chief
Commissioner of Police, to protest against a bill that Lord
Robert Grosvernor had introduced in the House of Commons for
regulating the Sunday trading of the London poor. The authorities
moved to disperse the crowd, and Bradlaugh, mindful of the right
of meeting, resisted. "When others fled before a charge of
police," says Holyoake, "he stood his ground and seized in each
hand the truncheons of the two policemen, disarmed them, and
threatened to knock down a third policeman with each of the
truncheons if he approached." [G.J. Holyoake, "Life and Career
of Charles Bradlaugh" (1891).] On a subsequent occasion
Bradlaugh aided the cause with his testimony. Appearing before a
Royal Commission ordered by the House of Commons, he denied the
right of Sir R. Mayne to issue notices forbidding the people to
meet in Hyde Park. [Charles Bradlaugh, "Autobiography of Mr.
Charles Bradlaugh," "National Reformer," August 31, 1873; Charles
Bradlaugh, "To the National Secular Society," "National
Reformer," April 28, 1878.
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The early Secularists likewise endeavored to insure the
continued application of the acknowledged principle of a free
press. They advanced arguments to that end, and on one occasion,
when the freedom of the press was actually imperilled, they came
to grips with the Government.
Their struggle with the Government arose when Edward
Truelove, a London publisher, was arrested by Government warrant
for publishing a pamphlet by W.E. Adams, Tyrannicide: Is It
Justifiable? which contained arguments in support of Orsini's
attempt on the life of Napoleon III. Bradlaugh became Honorary
Secretary of a committee formed to raise funds for defraying the
cost of Truelove's defense, and appeals for funds for the defense
were made both in the Reasoner and in the Investigator. Before
the case actually came to trial, the Government withdrew, on a
promise being given to discontinue the sale of the pamphlet."
["Reasoner," February 24 and March 24, 1858; "Investigator,"
March 1, March 15, April 1, and July 15, 1858; Hypatia Bradlaugh
Bonner, "Charles Bradlaugh" (1894), I, 17 and 64-71.]
Secularist efforts were also exerted to secure the removal
of a number of indirect restrictions on the press which took the
form of taxes. When the Secular Movement came into being there
were duties alike on paper, on advertisements, and on newspapers;
and there was in existence, for the purpose of putting an end to
these burdens, the Association for Promoting the Repeal of the
Taxes on Knowledge. What the Secularists did was to aid the
Association in its work. Holyoake, who had already been of
service as a member of the Committee of the Association and as
Editor of the Reasoner before the Secular Movement began,
continued as a Secularist to serve on the Committee and to use
the Reasoner as a medium of publicity. But this was not all. Many
Secularists, encouraged by Holyoake, contributed funds in aid of
the Association and assisted it by signing and circulating
petitions to Parliament; and in one part of the work of the
Association, that of securing the repeal of the newspaper tax,
Holyoake himself helped by withholding from the Government the
taxes due on what was in effect a weekly newspaper which he
published for the Committee:
Aided thus by Secularist contributions, and by the exertions
of publishers and members of Parliament, the Association was
successful in its operations: as early as 1853 the duty on
advertisements was removed; the year 1855 saw the abolition of
the newspaper stamp; the paper duty disappeared in 1861.
["Reasoner," August 1, 1849 - May 19, 1861, passim; "Presentation
to Mr. C.D. Collet," "National Reformer," March 15, 1862; C.D.
Collet, "History of the Taxes on Knowledge," I and II; G.J.
Holyoake, "Sixty Years of an Agitator's Life" (1892), 1, 273 ff.;
G.J. Holyoake, "Bygones Worth Remembering" (1905), I, 118-123 and
11, 269-271; Joseph McCabe, "Life and Letters of George Jacob
Holyoake" (1908), I, 257-275.]
A notable phase of the effort which the Secularists exerted
in behalf of the free play of ideas within limited spheres was
their activity directed toward securing equality before the law
for all forms of speculative opinion. One part of this work was
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their attempt to effect a modification of the arrangements
concerning the taking, of oaths. It will he recalled that as the
situation stood when the Secularists began their work Quakers and
other religious persons who had conscientious scruples against
oath-taking were permitted to accompany their legal testimony
with an affirmation, but that no such privilege was extended to
the non-religious. What the Secularists did, therefore, was to
advocate legislation to the end that Secularists and other non-
religious persons who objected to taking an oath might be
permitted the right of affirmation. In the earliest stages of the
Secular Movement (and even before) Holyoake petitioned the House
of Commons and utilized the Reasoner in the interest of remedial
legislation. In 1861, when Sir John Trelawney's Affirmation Bill
was before Parliament, Holyoake and other Secularists raised or
contributed funds and signed petitions in aid of the measure,
while Secularist writers called for its support, After the Bill
introduced by Trelawney had failed to pass, the Secularist
agitation continued. Writings by Secularists in favor of the
right to affirm now appeared in both the 'Counsellor' and the
'National Reformer.' ["Reasoner," July 8, 1849, to April 28,
1961, passim; "National Reformer," March 23, 1961, and March 15
and 29, 1862: "Counsellor," August 1, October, and December,
1861; G.J. Holyoake, "Secularism: the Practical Philosophy of the
People" (1854), n, 12; G.J. Holyoake and Charles Bradlaugh,
"Secularism, Science, and Atheism" (1870), pp. 31-32; G.J.
Holyoake, "Sixty Years of an Agitator's Life" (1892), II, 44:
G.J. Holyoake, "Bygones Worth Remembering" ( 1905), II, 78-91 and
95; Joseph McCabe, "Life and Letters of George Jacob Holyoake,"
(1908), I, 283, 303-304, and 337-338; Hypatia Bradlaugh Bonner,
"Charles Bradlaugh" (1894), 129 and 168-169; A.S. Headingley,
"Biography of Charles Bradlaugh" (1880), pp. 83-85 and 96.]
Another portion of the Secularist activity designed to
equalize all beliefs in the eyes of the law was their endeavor to
effect the disestablishment of the State Church. In this work the
Secularists utilized both the platform and the press, and based
their appeals upon a variety of grounds. Bradlaugh, for example,
on one occasion attacked the State Church with arguments derived
both from history and from the contemporary scene:
"We desire to overturn the State Church and the State
Religion, because the existence of a State Church and State
Religion has ever been attended by crime, fraud, and
persecution; because a State Church has ever proved an
obstacle to political reform; because a State Church is like
a vampire, devouring the estates of our dead citizens and
preying on the industry of our living brothers and sisters."
[Charles Bradlaugh, "Our Policy," "National Reformer,"
September 14, 1861.]
And at another time Bradlaugh appealed for the cause alike
on intellectual and ethical grounds:
"We attack the Church of England because by law the
Church is protected, to the disadvantage of all other
bodies. We deny the right of any statute-makers to limit
thought, or to grant a monopoly of trade in salvation. The
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Church is either of God or man. If of God, human legislation
can never add to its strength; and if the Church be of man
and not of God, then it exists under false pretenses, and
our attack is justified ... We attack the State Church and
its revenues because the Church of Christ, while declaring
that poverty is a blessing, has no logical justification for
its riches." [Charles Bradlaugh, "To New and Old
Supporters," "National Reformer," April 29, 1866. See also
the following: G.J. Holyoake and Charles Bradlaugh,
"Secularism, Science, and Atheism" (1870), pp. 31-32; G.J.
Holyoake. "Bygones Worth Remembering" (1905). II. 108; G.J.
Holyoake, "Sixty Years of an Agitator's Life" (1892). II,
44; Joseph McCabe, "Life and Letters of George Jacob
Holyoake (1908), I, 283; Hypatia Bradlaugh Bonner, "Charles
Bradlaugh" (1894), I, 129.]
The remaining phase of the work by which the early
Secularists attempted the equalization of opinions before the law
was their effort to remove legal dangers attendant upon the
criticism of religion. Efforts in this direction were not, it is
true, undertaken at the very outset of the Secular Movement; for,
though speaking in reproach of the Christian religion was
punishable as blasphemy both under the Common Law and under a
statute dating back, in its essentials, to the reign of William
III, no prosecutions for blasphemy had taken place for several
years, and little, apprehension was felt of danger in that
direction. But in 1857 the situation was changed. The prosecution
in that year of Thomas Pooley. an illiterate well-sinker who was
not exactly sane, for blasphemy roused the Secularists to action
looking to the repeal of the blasphemy laws. As a first step,
they utilized the Pooley case as a means of discrediting them.
Holyoake, with the aid of funds contributed by Secularists,
investigated and publicized the whole affair. Percy Greg, who was
then identified with the Secularists under the name of Lionel
Holdreth, wrote letters to the 'Times' and the 'Daily News'
censuring the authorities for the "meanness and wickedness of
attacking this poor and defenseless man." Greg also wrote public
letters of protest to Mr. Justice Coleridge, who presided at the
trial, and to Sir R. Bethell, the Attorney General. And various
Secularists petitioned the Secretary of State for the Home
Department asking for the annulment of the sentence of 21 months'
imprisonment which had been meted out to the defendant. Thanks to
all this Secularist activity, and to similar efforts on the part
of Buckle, John Stuart Mill, certain journalists, various
clergymen, and others, as well as to the fact that Pooley's
mental condition was worsened by his confinement, the prisoner
was released after five months. ["Reasoner" August 12 to
December 23, 1857, passim: Hypatia Bradlaugh Bonner, "Penalties
Upon Opinion" (2 ed., 1913), pp. 69-70; "Sugar Plums,"
"Freethinker," March 12, 1905.]
In the years that followed the Pooley affair the Secularists
worked directly for the repeal of the blasphemy laws. Thus
Bradlaugh called for their destruction on the ground that they
were at once unjust, futile, and discriminatory:
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"We desire to remove from our statute books all
enactments and restrictions on blasphemy and infidelity,
because it is manifestly unjust to prosecute a man for the
honest utterance of his views, and because such enactments
have a tendency rather to produce hypocrisy than faith. We
object that at present a Turk, or Chinaman, or a Brahmin may
deny Christianity in England without committing an offense,
while we 'freeborn Englishmen' are liable for the same
denial to fine, imprisonment, and outlawry." [Charles
Bradlaugh, "Our Policy," "National Reformer," September 14,
1861.]
Thus, too, Bradlaugh strove to end the detested measures by
heaping upon them his contempt:
"We declare that the Statutes against blasphemy by
which any Englishman is prohibited from denying, by word or
writing, any or either of the Thirty-nine Articles are a
disgrace to our civilization; and we shall continue to deny,
both orally and by writing, until the Church authorities
either prosecute us, or, for shame's sake, relinquish their
statute privilege of persecuting others." [Charles
Bradlaugh, "To Old and New Supporters," "National Reformer,"
April 29, 1866. See also Charles Bradlaugh, "Our Politics,"
"National Reformer," May 6, 186, and Hypatia Bradlaugh
Bonner, "Charles Bradlaugh" (1894), I, 129.
ATTACKING THE CHURCHES
Paralleling the activity of the early Secularists in
advancing the doctrines of Secularism was the expenditure of
Secularist energy in a campaign against the churches. It is true,
as will be seen, that the Secularists were not in agreement as to
the advisability of attacking religion, and that some of them did
not participate in the campaign. Others, however, did so. The
basis of the attack of these Secularists on the churches was, of
course, the fact that, speaking in general, the religious bodies
impeded the removal of abuses in society, indirectly by the
inculcation of non-earthly attitudes among the people and
directly through the furtherance of interests associated
primarily with the upper classes. In waging among the masses a
crusade against religion, the anti-theological Secularists
carried forward a work which broadly speaking, had been initiated
by Thomas Paine and which had been continued, on the one, hand,
by Richard Carlile and other detached individuals, and, on the
other, by such Owenites as Charles Southwell and Holyoake. The
Secularist attack upon theology found expression in an occasional
book, in numerous articles and pamphlets, and in great numbers of
lectures.
In carrying on their agitation the Secularist opponents of
theology used alike the arguments of distinguished rationalists
and the findings of science, history, and the higher biblical
criticism. As a matter of fact, the exploitation of reason,
science, biblical scholarship, and history constituted, for
practical purposes, the sum and substance of the anti-religious
work of the Secularists. It will be convenient, therefore, to
examine their activity under these four headings.
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In utilizing reason against the religious interests, the
Secularists discussed mainly the Bible, immortality, and God.
With respect to the Bible, Secularist spokesmen contended that it
was not a divine revelation, but was simply a man-made book,
characterized by the frailties and imperfections of man and
reflecting the diverse minds and the various ages that produced
it. In support of this contention they brought forward "proofs"
of its fallibility. They endeavored, for one thing, to show that
its morality was a low one. For example, the Secularist writer
John Watts declared, "Deeds are here attributed to Deity that
would stamp the name of any man with well-merited infamy." [John
Watts, "Who is the Lord, that I Should Obey His Voice?" (1862).]
And Bradlaugh held up to scorn the misdeeds of such leading
biblical characters as Abraham, Jacob, Moses, and David. The
Secularists also attempted to show that the Bible contained
numerous discrepancies and contradictions, and that it
accordingly was not reliable. Bradlaugh, for instance, once said
(along, of course, with other things in the same vein) : "Take
... the healing of the centurion's servant, as contained in
Matthew ... and Luke ... : according to one gospel, the centurion
comes to Jesus; according to the other, he does not; according to
one, the healing took place before the healing of Peter's mother-
in-law, before the calling of Matthew and before the choice of
the 12; according to the other, the healing took place after all
three." ["Debate at Birmingham. ... National Reformer," October
12, 1961. See also the following: Robert Cooper, "The Bible and
Its Evidences" (1858); Iconoclast (Charles Bradlaugh),."The Bible
Not Reliable" (1858); "A Discussion ... Between the Rev.
Woodville, Woodman and 'Iconoclast'," "National Reformer,"
November 2, 1861; Charles Bradlaugh, "To New and Old Supporters,"
"National Reformer," April 2, 1866.]
Concerning immortality, the Secularists energetically argued
either that it did not exist or that its existence was highly
improbable -- generally the former. Though Bradlaugh, John Watts,
and others took part in the agitation, perhaps the most
thoroughgoing efforts were those of Robert Cooper, who endeavored
to refute the outstanding arguments which proponents of the
doctrine of immortality had at one time or another advanced in
its behalf. To the argument for immortality based upon the
"universality" of the belief, he contended that the universality
of an opinion does not establish its validity, but that in any
case the belief in immortality was not universal. To the argument
that the doctrine of immortality is a consoling one, he replied
that though consolation might be derived from the anticipation of
heaven, it certainly was not to be had from the dread of hell. To
the argument that immortality is necessary to correct the
inequalities associated with life upon earth, he affirmed his
conviction that such inequalities would not be corrected beyond
the grave. "What!" he once asserted, "Because Deity cannot or
will not reward virtue and punish vice sufficiently in this
world, is that any assurance that he can or will do so in a world
to come? Because he allows injustice to be perpetrated here, is
that a Security that he would permit justice only to be
administered hereafter)" [Robert Cooper, "A Reply to Thomas
Cooper's Recent Lectures on 'God and a Future Life"' (1856), p.
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9.] Finally, to the argument that God would not have implanted
in men an ardent desire for immortality had he not intended to
extend it to them, Cooper asserted that human desires are not
invariably fulfilled. His own words are interesting:
"Probably the most esteemed position in favor of
immortality is the following: 'It accords with the fondest
hopes and wishes of man; and God would never have implanted
in us a desire so predominant, were it not ultimately to be
gratified.' I reply ... because we 'desire' an object are we
therefore to infer, as rational beings, that our
inclinations will be realized? I have heard of 'jumping to
conclusions,' but this exceeds anything on record. If we
take an illustration, its gross fallacy will be palpable.
The desire to become rich is a strong feeling in every human
breast. Therefore every human being will some day be rich. I
might with great propriety maintain that this desire
'accords with the fondest hopes and wishes of man; and God
would never have implanted in us a desire so predominant,
unless it were ultimately to be gratified.' The argument is
a parallel one, and equally conclusive and legitimate."
[Robert Cooper, "The Immortality of the Soul, Religiously
and Philosophically Considered," pp. 23-25. See also the
following: Charles Bradlaugh, "Has Man a Soul?" (1860?), and
John Watts, "Secularism: Its Relation to Christianity,"
"National Reformer," April 2, 1864.]
As regards God, Secularists such as Bradlaugh, Robert
Cooper, John Watts, and Holyoake (who sometimes disregarded his
avowed policy of not attacking the churches) advanced a variety
of arguments which were anti-theistic in character. One of these
was to the effect that the absolute creation of substance is
inconceivable. Another had it that the conception of an all-good,
all-wise, and all-powerful Deity is incompatible with the
existence of evil, A third stated that if God existed he would
make his existence known to men. Some of the Secularist arguments
were directed against the efforts of theists to prove God's
existence. Thus the contention that the moral tendencies in man
bespeak a moral governor was countered with the proposition that
it is just as true (or false) to say that the immoral tendencies
in man point to an immoral governor. And the argument from
design, to the effect that the marks of "design" in nature show a
designer of intelligence, was "answered" by the assertion that
under the same logic the designer himself must be admitted to
have been designed. [Robert Cooper, "A Reply to Thomas Cooper's
Recent Lectures on 'God and a Future State"' (1866); Charles
Bradlaugh, "Is There a God?" (1864 or earlier); John Watts, "The
Logic and Philosophy of Atheism" (1865); Charles Bradlaugh, "A
Plea for Atheism" (1864 or earlier); G.J. Holyoake, "Trial of
Theism" (1858).]
The efforts of the Secularists to discredit theology by
appealing to science ordinarily took the form of pointing out
"discrepancies" between science (including evolutionary
teachings) and the Bible. At one time they would assert that
science emphatically declares man to have existed on earth for a
far greater period than that indicated in the Bible. At another
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time they would contrast the scriptural view of the universe with
that of science -- as when Bradlaugh declared: "We notice that
the biblical account of the creation and its subsequent
references to the universe would picture the earth as the
principal feature of all existence, with the sun and moon as two
great lights, and the stars as simple accessories to the
illumination or adornment of the earth. It represents the earth
as a stationary, flat surface, with heaven above; that the sun
moved round the earth, and that the whole earth might be surveyed
from the summit of an exceedingly high mountain. Astronomical
discoveries have demonstrated the contrary of all this, and the
Bible is thus clearly not reliable." ["Iconoclast" (Charles
Bradlaugh), "The Bible Not Reliable" (1858). See also Charles
Bradlaugh, "Were Adam and Eve Our First parents?" (1864 or
earlier).]
The use of the higher biblical criticism in connection with
the Secularist campaign against the churches centered in efforts
of the Secularists to discredit the traditional Christian
teachings as to the authorship of various books of the Bible. As
an instance of this sort of thing, Bradlaugh once assereted that
no one knew by whom, when, or where the Pentateuch was written;
and on another occasion he made a similar statement with respect
to the Four Gospels.
The Secularists exploited history for their anti-religious
purposes in two or three different ways. For one thing, they
issued a publication, entitled Half-Hours with the Freethinkers,
containing short accounts of the lives and doctrines of eminent
freethought writers in all ages and lands. The work contained two
volumes. The first, which was prepared jointly by John Watts,
Bradlaugh, and W.H. Johnson, and which contained 24 biographies,
was completed in 1857. The second, containing 24 sketches, was
edited by Bradlaugh and John Watts, and appeared in 1864. In
these books, which brought together in readable form information
hitherto widely scattered and often inaccessible, the authors
aimed to show the common people that numbers of eminent men had
chosen to think freely for themselves on religious matters. Among
those whose lives were treated in the Half-Hours were Shelley,
Zeno, Voltaire, Spinoza, Hobbes, Paine, Epicures, Descartes,
Priestley, Hume, Condorcet, Helvetius, Anthony Collins, and
Holbach. The volumes were restrained in tone and were in
Considerable demand. [John Watts, "Iconoclast" (Charles
Bradlaugh), and "A. Collins" (W.H. Johnson), editors, "Half-Hours
with the Freethinkers" (1857); "Reasoner," January 18 and
September 9, 1857; "Autobiography of Mr. Charles BradlAugh,"
"National Reformer," August 31, 1873.]
On the strength of historical evidence the Secularists also
worked to destroy the notion that the religious beliefs and
practices mentioned in the Bible were unique and unrelated to
others. They pointed out identical or similar features associated
with the alien theologies, and suggested in each case that one of
the two systems was copied from the other or that both were
descended from a common original. In this connection they
published lists of Hebrew practices which they declared to have
been taken over from the Egyptians, and set forth resemblances
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between Christian and Hindu teachings. On this last point, for
example, Bradlaugh once wrote as follows: "There are strange
similarities an coincidences between the myths of Christianity
and Hindooism. In each a trinity -- Father, Son, and Holy Ghost
-- Brahm, Vishnu, and Siva. In each a war in heaven and expulsion
of the rebellious angelic hosts. In each a good and evil spirit
who contend. In each an Abba Rama (Abram Brama). in each an
incarnation (Chrisna -- Christ). In this God man's history we
obtain further likenesses:
CHRIST CHRISNA
Of royal descent. Of royal descent.
Born of the Virgin Mary. Born of the Virgin.
In the lifetime of the In the lifetime of the
tyrant Herod. tyrant Cansa.
Who sought to kill him. Who sought to kill him.
He fled from the land of He fled from the land of
his birth. his birth.
Into Egypt where he was Into Mathura where he was
fostered fostered
by Joseph and his wife Mary. by Anada and his wife
Yasoda.
During his absence mothers wept During his absence mothers
wept
for their children destroyed. for their children
destroyed.
He was to bruise the serpent's He slew the serpent Caliya.
head.
He was meek. He was meek.
He washed the feet of the He washed the feet of the
Apostles. Brahmins.
He said faith would remove He by faith did remove
a mountain. a mountain on the tip of
his finger.
He made the blind to see. He made the blind to see.
And the lame to walk. And the lame to walk.
And raised the dead. And raised the dead.
He descended into hell. He went down into the lower
regions.
He ascended into heaven. He ascended into heaven.
["Our Christianity," "National Reformer," February 8, 1862. See
also "Egypt and Mosaism," "National Reforaier," April 20, 1862.]
Finally, the Secularists condemned in no uncertain terms the
historical role of the church. With great indignation they
accused the religionists of systematically and untiringly
persecuting scientists and progressive thinkers -- as when
Bradlaugh in the course of a lecture challenged his audience to
name one science of which the early promulgators were not
persecuted as heretics and infidels by the Bible teachers.
[Account, reproduced from "Wigan Observer," of Bradlaugh's
lectures at Wigan, "National Reformer," October 20, 1860.] And
with even greater indignation the Secularists declared the church
to have been in chronic opposition to the spirit of social
amelioration and, justice. [See for example, "Reasoner,"
November 16, 1853, Supplement pp, 322-324. See also Hypatia
Bradlaugh Bonner, "Charles Bradlaugh" (1894), I, 127-128.]
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OPPOSITION TO SECULARISM
The doctrines and activities of the early Secularists evoked
from various members of the clergy and other Christians a
determined opposition. The Secularist vision of a material and
social world devoid of the supernatural element was distasteful
to the general run of churchmen, as were the individual reforms
which the Secularists advocated. Even more repugnant was the
tireless campaign which the Secularist leaders directed against
the religious interests. Under these circumstances it was
inevitable that individuals associated with the churches should
strike at the forces of Secularism. The number of persons who
combatted the Secular Movement was limited, inasmuch as the bulk
of the clergy, including especially those of position and
influence, followed the policy of ignoring Secularism.
Nevertheless, the opposition was of an extent and significance
adequate to warrant attention.
Among the forms it took were Christian efforts in debates
against Secularists and in replies to Secularist indoor and
outdoor lectures. There were also articles attacking Secularism
in religious periodicals, representative of which was the Rev.
Joseph Barker's "Six Chapters on Secularism or the Secular Theory
examined in the light of Scripture and Philosophy," which
appeared in the 'Christian News' in 1855. Non-periodical
publications, too, were forthcoming, such as Dr. John Alfred
Langford's 'Christianity, not Secularism, the practical
philosophy of the people: a reply to G.J. Holyoake's tract
"Secularism, the Practical Philosophy of the People" (1854) and
'The Spurious Ethics of Skeptical Philosophy, a Critique on Mr.
Holyoake's "Logic of Life"' (1860), by J. Clark. And there were
sermons. The Rev. J. Logan Aikman, in James's Place Church,
Edinburgh, denounced the Secular Movement as a vast conspiracy
for the overthrow of all religion and morality, and the Rev.
Brewin Grant, at the behest of congregationalist leaders,
undertook a "three years' mission" to check the spread of
Secularism. ["Reasoner," January 12 and October 19, 1853, and
January 11, 1867, to February 15, 1857, inclusive; G.J. Holyoake,
"English Secularism" (1896), pp. 60-52; "Investigator," July
1854; R. Cooper, "Autobiographical Sketch of Robert Cooper,"
"National Reformer," July 12, 1868; G.J. Holyoake, "Sixty Years
of an Agitator's Life" (1892), 1, 255 and 262; A.S. Headingley,
"Biography of Charles Bradlaugh" (1880), pp. 49-50.]
Such mild forms of opposition to the Secular Movement by no
means exhausted the resources of those who sought its
destruction. Frequently expedients of a more drastic character
were utilized. On several occasions Holyoake, Bradlaugh, and
other Secularist lecturers were refused the use of halls,
sometimes after they had already been engaged. Then, too, from
time to time, hostile action of a disorderly character grew out
of the efforts of Secularists to hold public meetings. Much light
is thrown on this latter variety of opposition by Bradlaugh's
account of his experiences in connection with a lecture which he
delivered in the Commercial Hall at Wigan on October 10, 1860,
"On the Wednesday evening," says Bradlaugh, "when I arrived at
the hall, I found it crowded to excess, and, in addition, many
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hundreds outside unable to gain admittance. My name was the
subject of loud and hostile comment, several pious Christians in
choice Billingsgate intimating that they would teach me a lesson
... I requested the religious body to elect a chairman, and Mr.
Thomas Stuart was voted to the chair. Of this gentleman I must
say that he was courteous, generous, and manly, and by his kindly
conduct compelled my respect and admiration. Previous to my
lecture the majority of those present hooted and yelled with a
vigor which, if it betokened healthy lungs, did not vouch so well
for a healthy brain, and I commenced my address amidst a terrific
din. Each window was besieged, and panes of glass were dashed out
in mere reckless wantonness, while at the same time a constant
hammering was kept up at the main door. As this showed no
prospect of cessation, I went myself to the door, and, to my
disgust, found that the disturbance was being fostered and
encouraged by a clergyman of the Church of England [The Rev.
W.T. Whitehead.] who wished to gain admittance. I told him loss
of life might follow any attempt to enter the room in its present
over-crowded state. His answer was, 'That he knew there was
plenty of room and would come in.' To prevent worse strife I
admitted him, and by dint of main strength and liberal use of my
right arm repelled the others, closed the doors, and returned to
the platform. I had, however, at the door received one blow in
the ribs, which, coupled with the extraordinary exertions
required to keep the meeting in cheek, fairly tired me out in
about an hour. Several times, when any crash betokened a new
breach in either door or window, the whole of the audience toward
the end of the room jumped up, and I had literally to keep them
down by dint of energetic lung power. Toward the conclusion of
the lecture the secretary of the rector forced his way bodily
through a window, and I confess I felt a strong inclination to go
to that end of the room and pitch him back through the same
aperture. If he had intended a riot, he could not have acted more
riotously. Some limestone was drawn in at another window, and a
little water was poured through the ventilators, by some persons
who had gained possession of the roof. This caused some
merriment, which turned to alarm when an arm and hand, waving a
dirty rag, appeared through a little hole in the center of the
ceiling. One man in a wide-awake then jumped upon one of the
forms and excitedly shouted to me, 'See, the devil has come for
you.' After the lecture I received in the confusion several
blows, but none of importance. When I quitted the building one
well-dressed man asked me, 'Do you not expect God to strike you
dead, and don't you deserve that the people should serve you out
for your blasphemy?' Two spat in my face. I clenched my nails in
my hands with anger, and wished much that I had a few of my
Yorkshire friends round me to see fair play while I taught the
unmanly scoundrels better manners. I judged that it would be
scarcely wise to take the mob in their excited state to the hotel
where I was staying, and therefore proceeded to the railway
station (whither I was accompanied by several hundreds hooting,
yelling and hissing), preferring rather to take a ticket to
Liverpool than to have a worse riot. A new dilemma now arose; my
pockets were empty, all my cash, except some flaw halfpence,
being at the hotel. Fortunately I found means of escaping my
pursuers at some slight risk to my neck, and got safely back to
my hotel. My dangers were not yet over. Although there was no
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crowd, only one person with me, and not the slightest disturbance
at the hotel, the landlady wished me at once to leave the house.
I appealed to her hospitality in vain. I next stood on my legal
rights, went to my bed room, locked the door, retired to bed, and
tried to dream that Wigan was a model Agapemone." [Charles
Bradlaugh, "Disgraceful Conduct of the Wigan Clergy," "National
Reformer," October 20, 1860.]
The type of opposition involved in the above episode made
its appearance repeatedly. Once at Wigan stones were thrown at
Bradlaugh and John Watts as they entered a hall where a lecture
was to take place. During one of Bradlaugh's lectures at
Dumfries, the gas lamps of the hall were smashed and the
skylights were shattered by stones. When Bradlaugh delivered a
lecture on one occasion at Norwich, "yells, hisses, abuse, a
little mud, and a few stones formed the chorus and finale of the
entertainment." One day when just beginning a lecture at
Plymouth, Bradlaugh was ejected from a field he had hired for the
lecture and detained overnight by the police, at the instigation
of the Young Men's Christian Association. At another time a mob
at Guernsey broke into the house in which Bradlaugh was speaking.
Lectures at various places by Mrs. Harriet Law were interfered
with by persons who put out the lights or sprinkled cayenne
pepper about the floor. ["National Reformer," March 9, 16, and
23, 1861; Charles Bradlaugh, "Autobiography of Mr. C. Bradlaugh"
(1873), pp. 14-16; Hypatia Bradlaugh Bonner, "Charles Bradlaugh"
(1894), 1, 162-193; A.S. Headingley, "Biography of Charles
Bradlaugh" (1880), pp. 59-79; J.M. Robertson, "Charles Bradlaugh"
(1920), p. 51; "Mrs. Harriet Law," "Freethinker," August 8,
1897.]
The net result of the opposition of Secularism was the
strengthening of the Secularist cause. The Secular Movement had
originated in part as a protest against Christian opposition to
reform, and each fresh effort of Christians to prevent the
advancement of the Secularist program simply increased the
determination of the Secularists to achieve their goals. Then,
too, the opposition to Secularism constituted an effective
advertisement of the Secularist program.
DISSENSION
The Secularists of the early years were not able to avoid
disagreement within their own ranks. Almost from the very
beginning of the Secular Movement two factions were in evidence,
one being composed of Holyoake and persons who supported him, and
the other containing Bradlaugh and certain supporters of
Bradlaugh.
The Secularists were not in disagreement as to the
principles of Secularism. It is true that some Secularists were
Atheists, some were Pantheists. and some were Theists, [See, for
example, Charles Bradlaugh, "To the ... Archbishop of York,"
"National Reformer," October 16, 1881.] and that each group
would have been pleased to convert the others to its viewpoint.
Eligibility for membership in the Secular body, however, did not
depend upon these beliefs, but upon the acceptance of the
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principle that morals and conduct should be devoted to the
promotion of man's happiness upon earth by natural means: and all
Secularists, of course, accepted this proposition. The Secularist
controversy hinged rather upon the question as to how Secularism
could best be advanced, and was concerned with the problem of
whether the Secularists should attack the churches. The view of
Holyoake and those who shared his opinion was that they should
not do So, [Holyoake spoke of occasions when opposition to
certain possible accomplishments of theology (such as reliance
upon prayer or the direct interference by the churches with the
Secular Movement) would be advisable (see, for example, the
"Reasoner," June 2, 1858), and from time to time he actually
attacked the essentials of specific theological doctrines -- as
in his "Trial of Theism" (1858).] but should limit themselves to
the task of working for the diffusion of Secularist principles.
They held that by following this policy the Secularists would not
only avoid engaging in an alien task, but would be able to
attract to the ranks of Secularism liberal-minded churchmen.
Bradlaugh and his supporters, however, took a widely different
view. Maintaining that the churches stood in the way of
Secularism, they held to be the task of the Secularists to do
everything possible to weaken their hold on the people.
["Reasoner," passim; "Investigator," passim; "National Reformer,"
passim; "Counsellor," November, 1861; "Freethinker," February 8,
1891; Joseph McCabe, "Life and Letters of George Jacob Holyoake"
(1908), passim; G.J. Holyoake, "Sixty Years of an Agitator's
Life" (1892), I, 139, and II, 290-294; G.J. Holyoake, "Bygones
Worth Remembering" (1905), I, 18-19, and II, 98-101; G.J.
Holyoake, "Warpath of Opinion" (189?), p. 37; Hypatia Bradlaugh
Bonner, "Charles Bradlaugh" (1894), passim; G.J. Holyoake and
Charles Bradlaugh, "Secularism, Skepticism, and Atheism" (1870).]
In spite of their differences of opinion as to method, and
notwithstanding much talking and writing about those differences,
the Secularists of the early years went on working together, in a
more or less friendly spirit, for the Secular cause. Their lack
of agreement did, however, prevent them from getting together in
a national union, and the divergent viewpoints of the two
factions were reflected in the policy of the various Secularist
periodicals, as well as in the character of the activities of
Secularists.
At the outset of the Secularist controversy the supporters
of Holyoake constituted the bulk of the Secularist party, As the
years passed, however, more and more persons were attracted to
the point of view held by Bradlaugh; and by the end of the period
under consideration by far the greater portion of the Secularist
body shared his outlook. [John Watts, "Freethought: Its Advocacy
and Tendency," "National Reformer," May 28, 1865; G.W. Foote,
"George Jacob Holyoake." "Freethinker," February 12, 1893; Joseph
McCabe, "Life and Letters of George Jacob Holyoake (1908), I,
346.]
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CHAPTER III
THE BRADLAUGH EPOCH
The triumph of the Bradlaugh viewpoint was paralleled by the
triumph, within the Secular Movement, of Bradlaugh himself. By
1866 he was the dominant personality among the Secularists, and
he remained such until 1890. His preeminence during the period
from 1866 to 1890 was so pronounced as to warrant the designation
of the era as the Bradlaugh Epoch. This period of Secularist
history stands apart from the years that preceded and those which
followed it, and forms a convenient unit for discussion.
ORGANIZATION
The very beginning of the new epoch saw the founding of the
National Secular Society, an association destined to endure
beyond the limits of the period. The Society was established by
Bradlaugh, who, taking advantage of the great popularity which he
had achieved among Secularists, as well as of the pronounced
lessening of the Secularist conflict which had made an earlier
union impossible, proclaimed the formation of the new enterprise
in September, 1866. [Charles Bradlaugh, "Secular Organization,"
"National Reformer," July 16, August 5 and 12, and September 2,
1866 and June 16, 1867; Charles Watts, "Secular Organization,"
"National Reformer," September 2, 1866.]
A "programme" for the new association laid down "objects"
and "principles" for its guidance. Its "objects" were asserted to
be:
"1st. To form an association for mutual help of all the
Freethinkers of Great Britain.
2nd. To conduct in the United Kingdom a more vigorous
Freethought propaganda, especially in districts where
Freethinkers are few and Freethought lectures are rare.
"3rd. To establish a fund for the assistance of aged or
distressed Freethinkers.
"4th. To provide parliamentary and other action in order to
remove all disabilities on account of religious opinions.
"5th. To establish Secular schools and adult instruction
classes in connection with every local society, having members
enough to efficiently support such schools or classes."
The "principles" of the new society were declared to be as
follows:
"I. This Association declares that the Promotion of Human
Improvement and Happiness is the highest duty.
"II. That the Theological Teachings of the World have been,
and are, most powerfully obstructive of human improvement and
happiness; human activity being guided and increased by a
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consciousness of the facts of existence; while it is misguided
and impeded in the most mischievous manner when the intellect is
prostrated by childish and absurd superstitions
"III. That in order to promote effectually the improvement
and happiness of mankind, every individual of the human family
ought to be well placed and well instructed; and all who are of
suitable age ought to be usefully employed for their own and the
general good.
"IV. That human improvement and happiness cannot be
effectually promoted without civil and religious liberty; and
that, therefore, it is the duty of every individual -- a duty to
be practically recognized by every member of this Association --
to actively attack all barriers to equal freedom of thought and
utterance for all, upon political and theological subjects."
An amplificatory statement issued in connection with the
"programme" declared that the fourth "object" aimed specifically
at the removal of "the blasphemy statutes, the oath-taking
practices, and the ecclesiastical disabilities." ["Proposed
Programme for the National Secular Society," "National Reformer,"
September 9, 1866; "National Secular Society," "National
Reformer," September 23, 1866.]
Statements of the principles and objects of the society
published in the six or eight years following 1866 included
features either not specifically mentioned in the foregoing
"programme" or not stated in it so explicitly. A description
issued in 1868 asserted that the "principle" calling for the
promotion of human improvement and happiness involved "the
promotion of political advancement by the political education and
enfranchisement of the masses" and the promotion of social
improvement by investigating and counteracting or preventing in
the future the causes of poverty and social degradation." And a
statement of 1874 called for the following:
"I. A system of really secular education, so that each child
may, at starting in life, be placed in a fair condition to form
more correct opinions, and be fitted for more useful conduct.
"2. The disestablishment and disendowment of the State
Church, and the placing of all religions and forms of speculative
opinion on a perfect equality before the law.
"3. Specially the improvement of the condition of the
Agricultural classes, whose terrible state of social degradation
is at present a fatal barrier to the formation of a good state of
society.
"4. A change in the Land Laws, so as to break down the
present system by which enormous estates are found in few hands,
the many having no interest in the soil, and to secure for the
agricultural laborer some share of the improvement in the land he
cultivates.
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"5. The destruction of the present hereditary Chamber of
Peers, and substitution of a Senate containing life members,
elected for their fitness, and therewith the constitution of a
National Party, intended to wrest the governing power from a few
Whig and Tory families.
"6. The investigation of the cause of poverty in all old
countries, in order to see how far unequal distribution of wealth
or more radical causes may operate. The discussion in connection
with this of the various schemes for social amelioration, and the
ascertainment if possible of the laws governing the increase of
population and produce, and affecting the rise and fall of
wages." ["National Secular Society," "National Reformer,"
February 2, 1868; "The National Secular Society," "National
Reformer," June 14, 1874.]
Broadly speaking, the program thus gradually worked out
remained in effect until the very end of the Bradlaugh epoch; for
though it is true that in 1877 a fresh statement of "principles"
was issued for the society, and that still another was put out in
1886, these were substantially restatements of the basic ideas
with which the Secularists were already identified. [Annie
Besant, "Conference of the National Secular Society arid Other
Freethinkers," "National Reformer," May 27, 1877; "Annual
Conference of the National Secular Society," "National Reformer,"
June 20, 1886.]
The headquarters of the National Secular Society during the
era under consideration were in London, and its officers in the
period included a President, several Vice-Presidents, a
Secretary, a Treasurer, two Auditors, and members of a Council.
Except for the Councilors, each of whom was chosen by a local
Secular society, the officers were named at annual conferences of
Secularists. All officials were elected for one year and were
eligible for reelection. The President, the Vice-Presidents, the
Secretary, the Treasurer, the Council, and, after 1883, the
Auditors made up what was known as the Executive. The Executive
met each month, the President serving as Chairman, and all
voting. After 1877, members of the Council who resided more than
20 miles from the place of meeting of the Executive had the right
to be notified of the matters scheduled to come before the
Executive and to vote on such matters by letter. ["Officers of
the National Secular Society ... National Secular Society
Almanac" (1877), pp. 42-43, "National Reformer," September 9,
1866, to June 10, 1888, passim.]
Alongside the Executive of the National Secular Society in
the Bradlaugh era were the Secularist Annual Conferences.
Attended by the officers of the National Secular Society,
delegates of the local Secular bodies, and individual Secularists
of the rank and file, these meetings served as occasions for the
submission of reports, the discussion of finances, the
determination of policy, the adoption of resolutions, the
election of various officers, and disposition of any other
matters of business relevant to the Secular Movement. The
Conferences took place on Whitsunday and were held in London,
Manchester, Leeds, Birmingham, Sheffield, and other cities
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throughout the country, the place of meeting being selected by
the Executive in the light of suggestions emanating from the
Secularist world. Voting at the Conferences ordinarily took place
by a show of hands; but upon occasions when such a vote was
challenged, voting by proxy was permitted. The Secularist
Conference was theoretically the dominant governing institution
within the Secular Movement. In actual practice, however, the
Conference was itself in large measure controlled by its
presiding officer, the President of the National Secular Society.
["National Reformer," September 29, 1867, to June 3, 1888,
passim.]
Affiliated with the National Secular Society in the period
under discussion were Secularist bodies of a local character.
Each local society had its own group of officials, including, in
general, a President, one or more Vice-Presidents, a Secretary, a
Treasurer, and a Committee. The officers of each branch were
elected by the members of that branch. Although the local
societies were bound by the principles of the National Secular
Society they enjoyed an autonomous status in the management of
their routine affairs. Secular local societies were to be found
in Liverpool, Manchester, Leeds, Birmingham, London, Edinburgh,
Glasgow, and many lesser places. [The list of local societies
affiliated with the National Secular Society within the limits of
the Bradlaugh Epoch included the following:
London societies: Ball's Pond; Battersea; Bermondsey and
Rotherwithe; Bethnal Green; Brixton; Camberwell; Central London;
Clapham; Clerkenwell; Croyden; Crystal Palace District; Deptford;
East London; Edmonton; Finsbury; Forest Hill; Hackney; Holloway;
Hornsey Road; Hyde Park; Kensington and Hammersmith; Kilburn;
Kingston; Lewisham; Leytonstone; Milton Hall; Newington Hall; New
South Gate; North End; North Lambeth; North London; North
Middlesex; Northwest London; Oll South Gate; Paddington; Peckham
and Dulwich; Reading; South London, No. 1; South London, No. 2;
Southwest London; Stratford; Streatham; Tottenham; Walthamstow;
Walworth and Camberwell; West Central London; West Ham;
Westminster; Woolwich and Plumpstead.
Provincial societies: Aberdare; Aberdeen, Abersychan and
Talywain; Ashton-under-Lynne; Atherton and Tlydesley; Batham;
Banbury; Barnsley; Barrow-in-Farness; Batley; Bedlington;
Belfast; Berkshire; Bingley; Birkenbead; Birmingham; Bishop
Auckland; Blackburn; Black Hill; Blaydon-on-Tyne; Blyth; Baldon
Colliery; Bolton; Bootle And Kirkdale; Bradford; Brierly Hill;
Brigham; Brighouse; Brighton; Bristol; Brotton; Bryne and
District; Burnley; Burton-on-Trent; Bury; Canning Town; Cardiff;
Carlton; Chatham, Brompton and Rochester; Chesterle Street;
Cleremont Hall; Clay Cross; Congleton; Cork; Coventry;
Cramlington; Crewe; Dalton-en-Furness; Darlington; Darwen; Denby;
Derby; Dewsbury; Dublin; Dudley Colliery; Dunkenfield; Dundee;
Eaton and Normandy; Edinburgh; Failsworth; Farsley; Freckleton;
Gateshead; Glasgow; Gorton; Gravesend; Grays; Grimsby;
Grisborough; Halifax; Hamilton; Hanley and Tunstall; Hartlepool;
Halsingden; Haslington; Hastings; Hatton and Easington; Hawick;
Headingley and Burley; Heckmondwicke; Heywood; Holstead;
Houghtonle-Spring; Huddersfield; Hull; Hulme; Hyde; Hythe;
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Ilkeston; Innesleithen; Ipswich; Jarrow; Jersey; Kerriemuir;
Kettering; Kidderminster; Kilmarnock; Kingston; Kirby; Lancaster;
Larne; Leeds; Leek and Congleton; Leigh; Leicester; Lincoln;
Liverpool; Lofthouse; Low Fell; Longton; Maidstone; Manchester,
No. 1; Manchester, No. 2; Mansfield; Middlesborough; Mold;
Mossley; Newcastle-on-Tyne; Newcastle-under-Lynne; New
Herrington; Newport; Normanton; Northampton; North Shields; North
Woolwich; Norwich; Nottingham; Oldham; Old Shildon; Over Darwen;
Oxhill; Paisley; Pendlebury; Pendleton; Perth; Petersborough;
Plaistow; Plumstead; Plymouth, No. 1; Plymouth, No. 2; Pontypool;
Portsmouth; Preston; Ramsbottom; Reading; Renfrew; Richmond;
Rochdale; Rossendale; Rotherham; Saint Helen's; Seaham Harbor;
Seghill; Sheffield, No. 1; Sheffield, No, 2; Shildon; Shipley;
Shrewsbury; Silverdale; Skipton; South Durham; South Eston;
Southampton; South Shields; Sowerley Bridge; Spennymoor;
Staleybridge; Stockport; Stockton-on-Tees; Stourbridge;
Stowbridge; Strood; Sudbury; Sunderland; Sutton-in-Ashfield;
Swansea; Swindon; Three Towns; Tildersley; Todmorden; Tow Low;
Tunbridge and Tunbridge Wells; Uxbridge; Wakefield; Walkerburn;
Walsend; Walsingham; Walthimstow; Walworth; Washington and
Usworth: Wednesbury; Wellingborough; West Auckland; West Bromwich
and District; West Gorton; West Hartlepool; White Haven; Wigan;
Willesden; Wolsingham; Wolverhampton; Wood Green; York.
"National Reformer," passim; "Freethinker," passim;
"National Secular Society's Almanac" for various years.]
The membership of the National Secular Society during the
Bradlaugh epoch also embraced scattered individuals not belonging
to any of the branches. ["Conference of the National Secular
Society," "National Reformer," December 1, 1867.]
From time to time in the era under consideration local
Secular bodies within given regions formed district organizations
for the purpose of promoting the exchange of lecturers among the
societies cooperating in such enterprises. These regional
associations had their own officers -- ordinarily a President, a
Secretary, a Treasurer, and a Committee -- and held "Annual
Conferences." Although from first to last a rather large number
of district unions were formed, they were very generally short-
lived institutions; and they naturally played no part in shaping
the course of the Secular Movement. Typical of the sectional
federations were the Manchester and District Secular Union, the
North of England Secular Propaganda Association, the Secular
Union for South Durham and North Yorkshire, the Yorkshire Secular
Lecturing Circuit, and the Northeastern Secular Federation. [The
list of unions in existence at one time or another during the
Bradlaugh era included also the following: the Lancashire Secular
Union, the Birmingham and Midland Secular Union, the Midland
Counties Secular Association, the West of England and South Wales
Secular Union, the Kent Secular Union, the Scottish Secular
Union, the Yorkshire Secular Lecturing Circuit, the Yorkshire
West Riding Secular Lecturing Circuit, the Midland Amalgamated
Secular Union, the Northern District Secular Association, the
London Secular Federation, the Northern Secular Federation, the
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North Middlesex Secular Federation, the Yorkshire Secular
Federation, the Lancashire Secular Federation; the Lancashire and
Yorkshire Secular Federation, the Northern Federation of National
Secular Society Branches, and possibly others.
"National Reformer," passim; "Freethinker," passim.
Two or three such organizations arose near the end of the
preceding Secularist era. "National Reformer," 1861-1865.]
All local Secular bodies did not affiliate themselves with
the National Secular Society immediately upon its formation.
Those which did not elect at once to attach themselves to the
national organization nevertheless adhered to the principles of
Secularism, and, generally speaking, participated in the District
Unions and, to some degree, in the Annual Conferences. As the
years passed, one by one of these non-affiliating local groups
joined the National Secular Society. By the end of the period of
Secularist history now under consideration, very nearly all such
bodies had become members. [The Leicester Secular Society, which
remained attached to the Holyoake viewpoint, never became a
member of the National Secular Society. Possibly one or two other
societies remained permanently aloof.
"National Reformer," passim; "Freethinker," passim;
"National Secular Society's Almanac" for various years; G.J.
Holyoake, "Warpath of Opinion" (189?), p. 61.]
For a brief portion of the Bradlaugh era there was in
existence outside the National Secular Society a Secularist
organization which, was not exactly local in character -- the
British Secular Union. This association arose in 1877 after
differences later to be explained had arisen between Bradlaugh
and Charles Watts and between Bradlaugh and Holyoake over legal
difficulties growing out of the sale of birth-control literature.
The society was founded by Holyoake and Watts. It had as officers
a Council, a Secretary, a Treasurer, and in 1881 and possibly
afterwards, a President. In its name Annual Conferences were
held. The program adopted by the association embraced the
principles of Secularism, but eschewed theological criticism. The
British Secular Union proclaimed itself a national body, and
announced the formation of a number of branches. It was never
able, however, to get on its feet, and its leaders presently
abandoned it. It died in 1884. ["In the course of the life, of
the British Secular Union, a branch existed at each of the
following places: London, Glasgow, Kingston, Leeds,
Kidderminster. Sheffield, Hull, Liverpool, Manchester,
Nottingham, Bradford, and Huddersfield.
"Secular Review and Secularist," August 25 to December 15,
1877, passim; "British Secular Almanac" for years; 1879 to 1883;
"National Reformer." 18791885, passim; Joseph McCabe, "Life and
Letters of George Jacob Holyoake" (1908), II, 90 and 86.]
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LEADERS
As has been seen, the foremost individual among the
Secularists of the period from 1866 to 1890 was Bradlaugh. Except
for one year, [In 1871 Arthur Trevelyan, a financial benefactor
of the National Secular Society, was elected President. "National
Secular Society's Conference at Birmingham, National Reformer,"
October 1, 1871.] he served as President of the National Secular
Society throughout the entire period; and he applied to the work
an energy and a resourcefulness not possessed by any of his
fellow secularists." ["Conference of the National Secular
Society" or equivalent title), "National Reformer," 1867-1890.]
But Bradlaugh was by no means the only distinguished personality.
Holyoake, though now less active in the Secular Movement than in
former years, remained associated with it, and not only at one
time held office as Vice-President of the National Secular
Society, but later served on the Council of the short-lived
British Secular Union. ["National Reformer," 1869-1890, passim;
G.W. Foote, "George Jacob Holyoake," "Freethinker," January 28,
1906.] There were also others, notably Mrs. Annie Besant,
Charles Watts, Dr. Edward Bibbins Aveling, George William Foote,
and John Mackinnon Robertson.
Annie Besant was truly an extraordinary asset to the Secular
Movement. She devoted an astonishing amount of energy to the work
of diffusing Secular principles, and her industry was accompanied
by pronounced enthusiasm for the cause. At the same time, she
possessed in easy control of language that gave her great
effectiveness on the platform. In commenting upon her ability as
a speaker H.M. Hyndman once declared: "It is doubtful whether any
woman of our time has had the oratorical faculty and power of
rousing and dominating an audience to the extent which Annie
Besant at her best possessed it. [H. M. Hyndman, "Further
Reminiscences" (1912), p. 4.] Her personal qualities, too, were
invaluable. She was endowed with sensitiveness and good taste,
and her manner was unusually agreeable. Thanks to her finely
proportioned features, her expressive brown eyes, and her
abundant, dark, glossy hair, she was also unusually attractive in
appearance. It is little wonder that she was a colleague in whom
the Secularists took great pride.
The birthplace of Annie Besant was London, where her father,
W.P.B. Wood, though a medical graduate of Dublin University, had
accepted an attractive commercial position; but in 1852, when
Annie was 5 years old, the father died, and Mrs, Wood soon
afterwards took her two children to live in Harrow, for the
purpose at once of earning a living by keeping in her home boy
students and educating her son at the school.
The opportunity for Annie's education came a little later
when Annie met a Miss Marryatt at a neighbor's house. Miss
Marryatt, who used a portion of her considerable wealth to
educate various children, provided training for Annie over a
period of seven years, allowing her to return to Harrow during
vacations but caring for her during school terms. For five of the
seven years Miss Marryatt lodged Annie at her house near the
village of Charmouth in Dorsetshire. Later she took the girl for
two extended sojourns on the Continent and for a winter in
London.
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Upon the completion of her educational training, in 1863,
Annie returned to Harrow, where, for the next three years, her
chief interest was in religion. She had been reared an Anglican
and in 1862 had been confirmed at Paris by the visiting Bishop of
Ohio. Since childhood she had been deeply religious. Now, in her
middle teens, her religious fervor became so intense that she
yearned to sacrifice herself in the service of Christ.
On a visit, in 1866, to her grandfather's in Clapham, Annie
Wood met the man whom she was to marry -- Frank Besant, a young
Cambridge graduate who had just taken holy orders and who was
serving temporarily as deacon in a newly-opened mission church at
Clapham. The wedding took place in 1867, after the Rev. Besant
had removed to Cheltenham, and the couple resided first at
Cheltenham and later at Sibsey.
Meanwhile, Annie Besant abandoned her orthodoxy. As early as
1866 a shadow of doubt appeared before her mind when, in
anticipation of Easter, she studied the four gospel accounts of
Christ's last week on earth and found discrepancies. She managed
to revive her faith after this experience, but the memory of the
episode remained, and in 1871 a long and painful illness
undergone by her daughter raised a question in her mind as to the
mercy of God. At the same time, wide religious reading, made
possible by her sheltered role as a clergyman's wife, undermined
her confidence in revealed teaching in general. The outcome was
that she became a thoroughgoing Freethinker.
During much of this time the relations of Mrs. Besant with
her husband had been growing increasingly strained. Physical and
temperamental incompatibility, accompanied by difficulties
growing out of the changes in Mrs. Besant's religious opinions,
caused such a breach that in October, 1873, Mrs. Besant procured
a legal separation.
For several months before the separation occurred Mrs.
Besant had been actively interested in anti-theological
propaganda. Though her activity in this direction was essentially
an outcome of her religious evolution, it was precipitated by her
acquaintance with Thomas Scott, who financed the publication,
month by month, of heretical pamphlets. She had been introduced
to Scott, in 1872, by the liberal clergyman Charles Voysey, to
whom she had made herself known after hearing one of his sermons
when on a visit to the home of her mother, who was now living in
London. Scott invited Mrs. Besant to submit to him an essay for
publication. She did so, and he published it anonymously in the
spring of 1873. [The pamphlet was entitled "On the Deity of
Jesus of Nazareth. An Enquiry into the Nature of Jesus by an
Examination of the Synoptic Gospels," and was followed by a
companion treatise bearing the title "According to St. John." "On
the Deity of Jesus of Nazareth. Part II. A Comparison Between the
Fourth Gospel and the Three Synoptics." The title page of the
pamphlets bore the words "By the Wife a Beneficed Clergyman."]
In the ensuing months she published anonymously through Scott
several additional pamphlets.
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Mrs. Besant about this time left Sibsey for London. While
studying in the metropolis, at the British Museum, she became
aware of the publishing firm of Edward Truelove, and on visiting
the Truelove shop on an errand, in the summer of 1874, she
chanced to see a copy of the National Reformer. From it she
learned of the existence and general character of the National
Secular Society. She was strongly impressed by the association,
and, after further inquiry, became one of its members.
Pending the completion of the pamphlets begun anonymously
for Thomas Scott, Mrs. Besant published such Secularist writings
as she produced under a nom de plume -- "Ajax," suggested by the
statue, "Ajax Crying for Light," in the Crystal Palace -- and
refrained from going on the Secularist platform. Before many
months had passed, however, she plunged into lecturing and began
to sign her writings in her own name. [Annie Besant, "Annie
Besant" (1893), pp, 11-180; Geoffrey West, "The Life of Annie
Besant" (1929), pp. 7-80; Gertrude Marvin Williams, "The
Passionate Pilgrim" (1931), pp. 3-60; A.S. Headingley, "Biography
of Charles Bradlaugh" (1880), pp. 159-162.]
The value of Annie Besant to the Secularist cause was
speedily recognized by the Secularists, and from 1875 onward she
was elected year after year as a Vice-President of the National
Secular Society. Bradlaugh himself, as will presently be seen,
placed important responsibilities upon her in connection with the
National Reformer, and she and Bradlaugh worked as close
associates in the Movement. ["Conference of the National Secular
Society" (or equivalent title), "National Reformer," 1876-1889.]
Efficient work was being done by Charles Watts before Mrs.
Besant became affiliated with the National Secular Society. Watts
possessed the gift of eloquence, and was also fond of debate, at
which he excelled. His effectiveness on the platform was
increased at once by a distinguished bearing and a genial
personality. As a writer Watts was the master of a lucid,
convincing style. His writings and lectures alike reflected a
humanitarianism that was contagious.
Charles Watts, younger brother of John Watts, was born at
Bristol in 1836. The son of a Wesleyan minister, he was reared in
a religious atmosphere and early became a Sunday school teacher.
In the early 1850's Charles took two momentous steps. He left
Bristol for London and he gave up his religious orthodoxy. It is
not surprising, under these circumstances, to find him occupying
in 1860 a position with the National Reformer. In 1864 he was
promoted from the post of printer to that of sub-editor, and in
the same year he began to appear on the Secularist platform. When
the National Secular Society came into existence he became
affiliated with it, and, besides continuing editorial work and
lecturing, served it for a number of years in the capacity of
Secretary and Vice-President. Subsequently, for a time, he was
active with the British Secular Union. The connection of Charles
Watts with the English Secular Movement, as will be seen, was
interrupted in the later years of the Bradlaugh era, and was not
resumed until after Bradlaugh's death; but this interruption did
not occur until after Watts had rendered energetic service to the
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A HISTORY OF THE BRITISH SECULAR MOVEMENT
cause over a number of years. [William Stewart Ross, "Sketch of
the Life and Character of C. Watts" (188?); "National Reformer,"
March 5, 1864, to June 11, 1876, passim; "Freethinker," July 22,
1894, and February 25, 1906; William Kent, "London for Heretics"
(1932), pp. 72-74; D.M. Bennett, "The World's Sages, Infidels,
and Thinkers" (1876), pp. 1004-1005: "Watts (Charles),"
"Biographical Dictionary of Freethinkers," (1889), by J.M.
Wheeler.]
Edward B. Aveling not only possessed wide scientific
knowledge, but was a competent writer, a forceful lecturer, and a
splendid teacher. His moral nature was not so well developed. He
was capable of rendering diligent service to the cause he deemed
to be a good one, even at the risk of great sacrifice to himself;
but in financial and personal relationships he displayed a
laxness that ultimately gave him an unenviable reputation among
his associates.
Whatever may have been Aveling's effect upon the fortunes of the
Secular Movement, it is a fact that he gave impetus to the
intellectual aspects of its program.
The son of a Congregational minister, Aveling was born in
1851. He was educated at Taunton and London Universities. From
the latter institution he received the degree of Doctor of
Science. He also taught science at the University of London for
several years. Through Bradlaugh's daughters, who had enrolled as
students at the London University, he met Bradlaugh and Mrs.
Besant, and in 1879 he became identified with the Secular
Movement.
As a Secularist Aveling rose rapidly. In 1880 and subsequent
years he was elected Vice-President of the National Secular
Society, and he was soon taking a leading part in various phases
of the work. His affiliation with the Secular Movement did not,
however, long endure. In 1884 he joined the camp of the
Socialists and disappeared from the Secularist scene. [Annie
Besant, "Annie Besant" (1893), pp. 246 and 249; Henry S. Salt,
"Seventy Years Among Savages" (1921), pp. 80-81; Frederick
Rogers, "Labour, Life, and Literature" (1913), pp. 175-177; D.M.
Bennett, "An Infidel Abroad" (1881), pp, 784-785; H.M. Hyndman,
"Record of an Adventurous Life" (1911), pp. 262, 309, and 388;
H.M. Hyndman, "Further Reminiscences (1912), pp. 140-147;
Gertrude Marvin Williams, "The Passionate Pilgrim" (1931), pp.
109-110, 121, 132, 138-148; "National Reformer," August 3. 1879,
to September 7, 1884, passim; "Freethinker," June 10, 1883, and
July 13, 1884.]
G.W. Foote was intellectually inclined, and through
persistent reading and thinking became a man of genuine culture.
At the same time he was intensely devoted to the principles to
which he gave his allegiance, and fought relentlessly in their
behalf. In doing so he wielded with equal effectiveness the
weapons of scholarship and logic and those of wit, satire, and
ridicule. Thus it is accurate to characterize Foote as a hard-
hitting scholar.
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Foote was born in 1850 at Plymouth. In 1868 he settled in
London. Before going to London he had, as a consequence of
reading, abandoned the orthodox religious teachings to which he
had adhered as a boy, and soon after arriving in the metropolis
he associated himself with organized Secularism,
In the Secular Movement Foote was active as an organizer,
lecturer, and writer. Though starting out with the National
Secular Society, he became identified with the British Secular
Union in 1877; but he soon returned to the National Secular
Society, and from 1882 onward through the Bradlaugh era served as
one of its Vice-PresidentS. ["Foote (George William),"
"Biographical Dictatory of Freethinkers" (1889), by J.M. Wheeler;
"Foote, George William," "Biographical Dictionary of Modern
Rationalists" (1920), by Joseph McCabe; Robert Flint, "Anti-
Theistic Theories" (1880), I,. 512; "Freethinker," July 1, 1883,
and May 15, 1898; "Truth Seeker," August, 1899.]
J.M. Robertson was one of the ablest individuals attracted
to the Secular Movement. He was also a man of sterling character,
and he wrote and spoke with fidelity to his conception of truth.
Though not the equal of Bradlaugh or Annie Besant as a popular
propagandist, his scholarly endeavors were a valuable asset to
the Secularist cause, especially in the fields of practical
reform and Freethought agitation.
Robertson was born in the Island of Arran on November 14,
1856. He attended school only to the age of 13, but subsequently
read widely on his own initiative. In 1878 he joined the staff of
the Edinburgh Evening News as feature writer. After moving toward
skeptical religious views by means of his own thought and
reading, he was made into a thoroughgoing Freethinker through
hearing Bradlaugh deliver a lecture at Edinburgh on Bruno. He
afterwards became actively connected with the Edinburgh branch of
the National Secular Society, and in 1884 went to London to
accept the sub-editorship of the 'National Reformer.' Besides
writing in the 'National Reformer' in the later years of the
Bradlaugh era, he lectured for Secularist societies. [J.M.
Robertson, "Charles Bradlaugh" (1894), Pt. two, pp. 142-143;
Annie Besant, "Annie Besant" (1893), pp. 285-286; Gertrude Marvin
Williams, "The Passionate Pilgrim" (1931), pp. 151-152;
"Robertson, Rt. Hon. John Mackinnon." "Who's Who" (British)
(1932); "National Reformer," October 12, 1884, to February 8,
1891, passim; "Freethinker," January 15 and 22, 1933.]
PUBLICATIONS
The Secularists of the Bradlaugh epoch produced and
distributed a great deal of propagandist literature, as the early
Secularists had done. For one thing, they continued the practice
of issuing magazines. One of the journals they put out -- namely,
the National Reformer -- had been founded, as we have seen, in
the earlier period. Bradlaugh, who had edited the paper
throughout the greater part of its existence in the former era,
continued as its sole editor until 1877. In that year Annie
Besant became co-editor with Bradlaugh. The co-editorship lasted
until 1887, when, for reasons which will be explained, Bradlaugh
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A HISTORY OF THE BRITISH SECULAR MOVEMENT
once more became sole editor. The policies of the 'National
Reformer' throughout the Bradlaugh era remained what they had
been from the first appearance of the journal. The paper
continued to be issued weekly. ["National Reformer," all
numbers; Annie Besant, "Annie Besant" (1893), p. 180; Hypatia
Bradlaugh Bonner, "Charles Bradlaugh" (1894), 11, 15 and 87.]
The periodicals originating in the Bradlaugh era included
the Reasoner, the Secular Chronicle,, the Secularist, the Secular
Review, the Liberal, the Freethinker, and the Present Day.
The Reasoner was founded by Holyoake in 1871. It represented
an attempt to revive the periodical of the same name which had
passed out of existence in 1861. The new journal adopted the
viewpoint of the earlier paper. It was issued monthly. The
venture was not a success. Because of an inadequate circulation
the paper died in July of the year following its birth. [The new
"Reasoner" was printed by the Manchester Co-operative Society,
and half the space of the paper was devoted to cooperation.
Joseph McCabe, "Life and Letters of George Jacob Holyoake"
(1909), II, 58-59,]
The Secular Chronicle was issued in Birmingham, and combined
advocacy of Secularist principles with opposition to theology. It
was founded in 1872 by a young man named C.H. Reddels. In 1875
Redders died, and the paper was taken over by Mrs. Harriet Law,
who had energetically spent many years as a Secularist lecturer.
From Mrs. Law the journal passed to one George Standring.
Starting as a monthly publication, the paper was converted into a
weekly organ in 1875; but in 1878 it again began to appear
monthly. From the first the Secular Chronicle failed to pay its
way, and in 1879 its existence was brought to a close. [Secular
Chronicle," passim; "National Reformer," December 11, 1870, to
April 6, 1879, passim; "Freethinker," August 1, 1897, to June 5.
1898, passim; "Law, Mrs. Harriet," "Biographical Dictionary of
Modern Rationalists" (1920), by Joseph McCabe.]
The fortunes of the Secularist and the Secular Review were
closely linked together. The Secularist, which was issued weekly,
was launched as a joint enterprise by Holyoake and Foote at the
beginning of January, 1876, and represented the Secularist
viewpoint associated with the name of Holyoake. The two editors
of the paper speedily developed personal differences, however,
with the result that within less than two months Holyoake
withdrew, leaving the concern solely in the hands of Foote. After
severing his connection with the Secularist, Holyoake started, in
the same year, the Secular Review, a weekly journal expressive of
the Holyoake outlook. But in February, 1877, Holyoake, who was in
frail health, relinquished the editorship of the Secular Review
and turned it over to Charles Watts, after Watts had been
dismissed by Bradlaugh, for reasons which will be explained, from
a position as sub-editor of the National Reformer. When the
British Secular Union came into existence, the Secular Review
became identified with it. Likewise, Foote, who had left the
National Secular Society and become affiliated with the British
Secular Union, brought the Secularist into the camp of the
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British Secular Union. In the summer of 1877 the two papers were
amalgamated to form the Secular Review and Secularist, with Watts
and Foote as joint editors. Foote before long withdrew from the
project, and the Secular Review and Secularist became simply the
Secular Review, with Watts as sole editor. Shortly afterwards
Watts associated with himself in the editorship an impassioned
writer, William Stewart Ross, who wrote under the name of
"Saladin." With the failure of the British Secular Union in 1884
Watts gave up the journal to Ross, who changed its name and
carried it out of the Secular Movement. ["Secularist," all
numbers; "Secular Review and Secularist," all numbers; Secular
Review," passim; "Agnostic Journal and Electric Review," passim;
William Stewart Ross, "Sketch of the Life and Character of
Charles Watts" (1877), pp. 5-6; "The Secular Review," "British
Secular Almanac for 1882," p. 32; Joseph McCabe, "Life and
Letters of George Jacob Holyoake" (1908), 11, 79, 85-87, 142-143
and 343; "National Reformer," January 9 to December 31, 1876;
"Freethinker,"; July 29, 1883, May 15, 1888, and December 9,
1906; "Foote (George William)" and "Ross (William Stewart)"
"Biographical Dictionary of Freethinkers" (1889), by J.M.
Wheeler; "Foote, George William," "Watts, Charles," and "Ross,
William Stewart," "Biographical Dictionary of Modern
Rationalists" (1920), by Joseph McCabe.]
The Liberal, a monthly journal founded by Foote at the
beginning of 1879, emphasized the principles of Secularism, but
also contained anti-religious agitation. The, paper was
unsuccessful and died within a year. [G.W. Foote, "Joseph
Mazzini Wheeler," "Freethinker," May 15, 1898; Charles Bradlaugh,
"Rough Notes National Reformer," November 24 and December 8,
1878; "Foote (George William)" "Biographical Dictionary of
Freethinkers" (1889), by J.M. Wheeler.]
The Freethinker was established in 1881 by Foote, who
returned to the National Secular Society and identified the paper
with it. The Freethinker, though supporting the Secularist
principles, gave chief attention to agitation against theology.
The paper was militant in tone and made free use of satire and
ridicule. Foote edited it throughout the later Bradlaugh era,
except for a brief period, beginning in 1883 and ending in 1884,
when, as will be seen, he was undergoing imprisonment for
blasphemy. During that interval it was edited successively by
J.M. Wheeler, the former sub-editor, and, upon Wheeler's mental
breakdown, by Aveling. The paper was started as a monthly
publication; but with the issue of September 4, 1881, it began to
appear weekly. The "Freethinker" soon took its place as one of
the principal Secularist journals of the period. ["Freethinker,"
all numbers; "National Reformer," April 17 and October 9, 1881,
and March 18, 1893.]
The 'Present Day,' a monthly organ, was established by
Holyoake in 1883 and constituted one more effort to further by
journalistic means the Secularist policy which Holyoake
championed. But the paper was no more successful than Holyoake's
periodicals in the earlier years of the Bradlaugh era had been,
and in 1886 it was abandoned. [Edward B. Aveling, "Mr. Holyoake
and Freethought," "Freethinker," June 17, 1883; Joseph McCabe,
"Life and Letters of George Jacob Holyoake" (1908), II, 148-150
and 344.]
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In addition to journals, non-periodical literature
enunciating Secularist and anti-religious principles was issued
in great quantities. Many of the works put out were written by
persons affiliated with the Secular Movement; but there were some
from the pens of others -- such as Thomas Paine's 'Age of
Reason,' Robert Ingersoll's lectures, Voltaire's Philosophical
Dictionary, Renan's 'Life of Jesus,' and John Morley's
'Rousseau.' The literature was generally sold at low prices; but
considerable portions of it were distributed gratuitously. In a
single year 48,000 tracts were granted by the Executive of the
National Secular Society for free distribution by the London
branches having open-air meetings. ["National Reformer,"
1966-1890, passim; "British Secular Union Almanac for 1879"
(1878), p. 45.]
The distribution of Secularist literature was facilitated by
firms operated by Secularists of London. One such enterprise was
the printing and publishing establishment which had been carried
on by Austin Holyoake in the latter part of the preceding
Secularist era. Austin Holyoake continued to conduct the
undertaking in the Bradlaugh period until his death in 1874, when
it was purchased by the Secularists for and on behalf of Charles
Watts. It was carried on by Watts for the next several years. The
concern received a blow in 1877 when (as will be explained)
Bradlaugh became displeased with Watts and withdrew his patronage
from it. Watts associated the business, however, with the British
Secular Union and kept it going until the Secular Union failed in
1884, when he turned it over to his son Charles A. Watts. Young
Watts terminated its affiliation with the Secular Movement.
Besides the Holyoake-Watts concern, there existed also, after
1877, the Freethought Publishing Company. This was a partnership
formed by Bradlaugh and Mrs. Besant after Bradlaugh had broken
off all business relations with Watts. The establishment was
located at 28 Stonecutter Street for some years, but in 1882
attractive and convenient premises were secured at 63 Fleet
Street. The Bradlaugh-Besant firm served the Secular cause
throughout the later years of the Bradlaugh Era and, as will be
seen, even afterwards for a short time." [William Stewart Ross,
"Sketch of the Life and Character of C. Watts," p. 7; "National
Reformer," April 26, 1874, to December 21, 1890, passim; "British
Secular Almanac for 1883" (1882), pp. 1-2; Hypatia Bradlaugh
Bonner, "Charles Bradlaugh" (1894), 1, 12-17, and II, 17 and 100;
Joseph McCabe, "Life and Letters of George Jacob Holyoake"
(1908), 70, 80, and 81; Annie Besant, "Annie Besant" (1893), p.
285.]
MEETINGS
Like the early Secularists, the Secularists of the Bradlaugh
era held assemblages of one sort or another. These included
regular Sunday meetings, debates, and outdoor exercises.
At the Sunday meetings, held in Secular halls, the central
feature was the lecture. Every phase of the Secularist program
was discussed by the lecturers, and so the list of titles ranged
from "Secularism, the Gospel of Progress" to "The Mosaic
Cosmogony and Science," and from "Woman: Her Natural Position in
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A HISTORY OF THE BRITISH SECULAR MOVEMENT
Society, and Her Influence for Good and Evil" to "1793, 1832, and
1867." Often the lecturers were local speakers, but frequently
exchanges of lectures were arranged by the various district
organizations, and from time to time Bradlaugh, Annie Besant,
Foote, Holyoake, Charles Watts, and other Secularist leaders went
on lecturing tours throughout the country. The group of prominent
lecturers included, in addition to these leaders, Mrs. Harriet
Law, John Maughan, Thomas Slater, W.J. Ramsey, Touzeau Parris,
E.B. Aveling, Arthur B. Moss, J.M. Robertson, Mrs. Thornton
Smith, and G. Standring. The lecture at the Sunday meeting was
followed by a general discussion of the topic treated by the
lecturer. Opportunity was given at this time for criticism of the
lecture by persons in the audience; and critical remarks were
replied to by the lecturer. These post-lecture discussions were
often the occasion for spirited exchanges of verbal blows, and
constituted a popular feature of the Secularist meetings. Many
societies supplemented the lectures and discussions with vocal
and instrumental music. This took the form of hymns. The songs
rendered were expressive of Secularist belief and sentiment. Thus
some were devoted to the praise of freedom, or truth, or
friendship, or "brave reformers." Others urged defense of the
weak and desolate or obedience to the laws of nature. Still
others denounced poverty or suffering or extolled science, work,
or hope. All directly or indirectly inculcated that basic Secular
principle of self-help which one of them explicitly called for in
these words:
People throughout the land,
Join in one social band,
And save yourselves;
If you would happy be,
Free from all slavery,
Banish all knavery,
And save yourselves.
The songs used by the Secularists were written by Whittier,
Shelley, Longfellow, Shakespeare, Lowell, Swinburne, Milton,
Carlyle, and many others, including Annie Besant. ["National
Reformer" 1866-1890, passim; "Freethinker," 1881-1890, passim;
"National Secular Society's Almanac" (1881), p. 48, and (1886),
p. 42-47; Hypatia Bradlaugh Bonner, "Charles Bradlaugh" (1894),
I, 53 and 238-251; "Secular Review and Secularist," September 22,
1870, and November 3 and 10, 1877; Annie Besant, "Annie Besant"
(1893), pp. 191-201.]
To facilitate the use of music in connection with Secularist
meetings Austin Holyoake and Charles Watts edited a Secular hymn
book. The volume appeared in 1871 and was entitled 'The
Secularist's Manual of Songs and Ceremonies.' It contained,
besides a statement of the principles of Secularism and other
matters, more than 100 original and selected songs. An improved
collection of hymns, authorized by the National Secular Society,
was edited by Annie Besant in 1875 under the title 'The Secular
Song and Hymn Book.' The new work contained words only, and not
musical notes, but the pieces included in it fitted designated
tunes appearing in Hymns Ancient and Modern, a popular Christian
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A HISTORY OF THE BRITISH SECULAR MOVEMENT
hymnal. A second edition of the work came out in 1876. [Annie
Besant, Editor, "The Secular Song and Hymn Book" (Second
Edition), 1876; "National Reformer," July 30, 1971, December 19,
1875, and May 31, 1885.]
Debates between Secularists and persons opposed to
Secularism were looked upon by the Secularists as golden
opportunities for spreading the principles of Secularism and
discrediting theological teachings, and were arranged on every
possible occasion. Though the Secularists courted debates with
any and all comers, their opponents were ordinarily clergymen or
other representatives of organized religion -- Anglicans,
Congregationalists, Methodists, Unitarians, Christadelphians,
Catholics, and possibly others. The following titles of debates
are typical: 'Is Christianity the Best System for the Promotion
of Human Happiness?"; "Are the Principles of Secularism the Best
Adapted to Promote the Happiness of the Human Race?"; "Are the
evidences adduced by Christians in support of the writings known
as the 'Bible,' sufficient to warrant their being received and
proclaimed as the word of God?"; and "Is Secularism the True
Gospel for Mankind?" Quite a number of persons participated in
debates against Secularists. The list of clergymen included the
Rev. J. Henson, the Rev. Alexander Stewart, the Rev. J.A. McCann,
the Rev. A. Hatchard, the Rev. G.F. Handel Rowe, the Rev. A.J.
Harrison, the Rev. Brewin Grant, the Rev. R. Shepherd, the Rev.
W. Howard, the Rev. T.D. Matthias, the Rev. William Adamson, the
Rev. J.C. Whitemore, the Rev. R.A. Armstrong, Father Ignatius,
the Rev. J.H. Gordon, the Rev. W.M. Westerby, the Rev. Marshden
Gibson, the Rev. B.H. Chapman, and others. Lay debaters were
approximately as numerous as the debating clergymen, and
included, besides others, W.T. Lee, S. Worley, Alexander
Robertson, Thomas Barber, W. Gillespie, David King (Editor of the
British Harbinger), T. Mahoney, William Rossiter (Principal of
the Camberwell Free Fine Arts Gallery), Walter R. Browne, H.D.
Jeffries, Robert Roberts (Editor of the Christadelphian), William
Simpson, Thomas Crow, H.A. Long, B. Harris Cooper, and G. Sexton.
For the Secularists, Bradlaugh, Charles Watts, Mrs. Harriet Law,
Annie Besant, Foote, Aveling, J. Symes, R. Rossetti, Sam
Standring, C.J. Hunt, and others participated. Secularist debates
were often lively affairs and were frequently attended by large
crowds. Bradlaugh, for example, reported that at one of his
debates with the Rev. A.J. Harrison there was present "an
audience of 5,000." Naturally the interest was at times intense.
In reporting a debate at Grimsby between Mrs. Harriet Law and the
Rev. R. Shepherd the Grimsby Advertiser declared, "Our readers at
a distance can scarcely form an idea of the deep interest
attached to the controversy by all parties in Grimsby, nor the
excitement which has manifested itself during the delivery of the
lectures." Many of the debates lasted for several nights. [The
remarks of the "Grimsby Advertiser" were quoted in "The
Secularist controversy," "National Reformer," May 26, 1867. The
debates were reported in the pages of Secularist periodicals such
as the "National Reformer," the "Freethinker," and the "Secular
Review and Secularist." Debates too numerous for citation were
published in pamphlet form. References to debates appear in such
biographies as Hypatia Bradlaugh Bonner's "Charles Bradlaugh"
(1894).]
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The outdoor assemblages arranged by the Secularists took
place in open spaces of numerous municipal centers -- London,
Portsmouth, Bristol, Leeds, Derby, Newcastle-on-Tyne, Hull,
Plymouth, Edinburgh, Rochdale, Nottingham, Sunderland, Hastings,
Northampton, and various others. The number of stations at which
outdoor meetings were held was an impressive one. In 1885
(perhaps one of the most active years) there were in London alone
stations at Albert Embankment, Battersea Park, Clerkenwell Green,
Columbia Road, Elgin Road, Green Lanes, Hyde Park, Kensal Green,
Kingsland Green, Midland Railway Arches, Mile End Waste, Peckham
Rye, Plaistow Green, Regent's Park, Streatham Common, Victoria
Park, Walham Green, and possibly other places; and the list of
provincial stations reported the same year was a comparable one.
The Secularist outdoor meetings were ordinarily held by local
Secular societies, each participating society being in charge of
a station in it's vicinity. As the purpose of the meetings was
primarily to win converts to the Secular Movement, practically
all of the lecturers simply extolled the philosophy of Secularism
and attacked the Bible and Christianity: few discussed the
detailed political and social program sponsored by the
Secularists. The meetings were held during the spring, summer,
and autumn months. They were conducted usually by young men.
Persons in the audiences were encouraged to make comments on the
lectures, and often lively discussions took place between the
speakers and their critics. The Secularists were convinced that
many persons attended the Secularist outdoor exercises who never
could have been persuaded to enter the Secular halls. ["National
Reformer," 1866-1890, passim; "Freethinker," 1881-1890, passim;
"National Secular Society's Almanac for 1881" (1880), p. 48.]
CEREMONIES
Departing from the policy of the early secularists,
Bradlaugh and his associates made use of ceremonies. These were
utilized upon the occasion of the naming of an infant of
Secularist parents and in connection of the burial of
Secularists, and were thus Secular counterparts to the
christenings and funeral rites associated with Christianity,
[See "Reports of Meetings" and "Obituaries" in the "National
Reformer" throughout the period, and "Obituary" and
"Correspondents" in the "Freethinker", for the years 1881 to
1890.]
The Secular ceremonies were undertaken not only as a source
of emotional satisfaction to Secularism, but also as a means of
inspiring the social (and domestic) affections, it was thought,
too, that the use of the ceremonies would strengthen the Secular
Movement itself, by enriching its emotional appeal. [Austin
Holyoake, "Secular Ceremonies," "National Reformer," Jan. 12,
1968.]
The forms used in connection with the Secular ceremonies
were prepared by Secularist leaders. Austin Holyoake and Charles
Watts, in 1868, published the ones which were generally used,
Watts bringing out the form for the naming of infants, and Austin
Holyoake issuing the burial form. A form for each of the
ceremonies was also brought out, however, by Annie Besant -- in
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1883. [Holyoake, "Secular Ceremonies," "National Reformer,"
November 15, 1868; Charles Watts, "Secular Ceremonies," "National
Reformer," December 20, 1969; R.C. Forder, "Monthly Meeting of
the Executive of the National Secular society," "National
Reformer," September 2, 1883.]
The Secular ceremony for the naming of infants took place in
connection with the regular Sunday meetings. A Secularist
lecturer named the child and identified it with the Secular body.
At the same time, the officiant expressed thoughts and
aspirations appropriate to the occasion. He declared that by
publicly introducing their infant into the Secularist ranks, the
parents were giving a pledge that they desired to dedicate their
offspring to the cause of free inquiry and unsectarian progress;
and he expressed the wish that the child would at maturity
realize the parents' fondest hopes in these respects. On the
other hand, he reminded the parents that such a realization would
likely be forthcoming only if they guarded well the formation of
the child's character; and to this end he urged them to encircle
the child with pure influences and to foster within it the desire
for excellence and virtue. In his concluding remarks the
officiating lecturer expressed the hope that, in its last hours
of life, the infant named in the ceremony would obtain
consolation from a consciousness that to the best of its
knowledge and capacity it had been true to the Secularist
conception of the mission of life.
At the Secular burial service, the Secularist who officiated
endeavored to afford consolation and reconcilement to the
bereaved. He recalled the loyal devotion of the deceased to the
Secular ideal of the service of humanity, and declared that such
devotion had not only rendered tranquil the deceased's life and
death, but that the remembrance of it constituted a legacy to
surviving relatives and friends. He then dwelt for a time on
personal matters relating to the deceased. Next, be discussed the
inevitability of death, but declared that it had no terrors for
persons who had the consciousness of a well spent life. Finally,
he exhorted his hearers to emulate the good deeds of the
deceased, and suggested that if they did so they would enjoy the
conviction that their own memory would be cherished by those who
came after them. [The foregoing descriptions are based upon the
forms produced by Austin Holyoake and Charles Watts.]
FURTHERING THE PRINCIPLES OF SECULARISM
A major activity of the Secularists in the period from 1866
to 1890 was obviously efforts to promote the diffusion of
Secularist doctrines. In this connection secularist agitators
devoted considerable attention to furthering the spread of the
fundamental principles of Secularism. Through countless platform
utterances, as well as by pamphlets and by articles in Secular
periodicals, they endeavored to argue convincingly that a man's
highest duty is the promotion of human welfare upon earth and
that such an end can be achieved only by means of human effort
exerted in the light of Secular knowledge. [G.W. Foote,
"Secularism, the Philosophy of Life" (1879); Annie Besant, "The
True Basis of Morality" (1874); Charles Watts, "Secular Morality;
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A HISTORY OF THE BRITISH SECULAR MOVEMENT
What Is It? An Explanation and a Defense" (1880); G.W. Foote,
"The Philosophy of Secularism" (1879); Arthur B. Moss, "The
Secular Faith" (1886); "National Reformer," 1866-1890, passim;
"Freethinker'," 1881-1890, passim; "Secular Review and
Secularist," passim.]
The less-basic features of the Secularist program were not,
however, neglected. The Secularists labored as energetically to
achieve the special reforms which they envisaged for various
departments of society as they worked to secure the adoption of
their broader principles. Indeed, in this connection they did not
entirely restrict themselves to matters specifically mentioned in
their printed statement of aims. In one or two directions they
endeavored to effect additional changes. It will be illuminating
to look at the entire range of their activity.
One striking part of it was their agitation for the
abandonment of the monarchy and the establishment of a republic.
[There were Secularist who were not Republicans. Charles
Bradlaugh, "To the Archbishop of York," "National Reformer,"
October 16, 1881.] Though their greatest activity in this
direction occurred in the early 1870's, following the
establishment of the Third Republic in France, they labored at
the task throughout the entire period under discussion -- even in
the later years of the era, despite the fact that by that time
the monarchy was steadily growing in popularity, thanks to the
resumption by Queen Victoria of the ceremonial functions which
she had neglected in the years following Prince Albert's death.
The efforts of the Secularists in favor of Republicanism
took the form, in part, of lectures. Bradlaugh, Charles Watts,
Mrs. Law, Holyoake, Annie Besant, Foote, and numerous other
Secularist speakers condemned the monarchy again and again,
charging that it was too costly for the toiling masses to
maintain, declaring that it fostered upper-class exploitation of
the people at large, and avowing that it was synonymous with
political incompetence. ["Reports of Meetings" "National
Reformer," 1866-1890, passim; "Special Notice," "Freethinker,"
1881-1890, passim; Hypatia Bradlaugh Bonner, "Charles Bradlaugh"
(1894), I, 306.]
Various Secularists also wrote on the subject. The work
which was the most conspicuous was undoubtedly Bradlaugh's
Impeachment of the House of Brunswick, which, originally
published in 1872, reached by 1881 its eighth edition. Calling
for the exclusion of the reigning dynasty from the throne by
Parliament, upon the death or abdication of Queen Victoria, the
booklet justified its demand on the following grounds:
"1st. That during the 157 years through which the
Brunswick family have reigned over the British Empire, the
policy and conduct of the majority of the members of that
family, and especially of the various reigning members,
always saving and excepting her present Majesty, have been
hostile to the welfare of the mass of the people.
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"2nd. That during the same period of 157 years fifteen-
sixteenths of the entire National Debt have been created,
and that the balance due of this debt is in great part the
result of wars arising from the mischievous and pro-
Hanoverian policy of the Brunswick family.
3rd. That in consequence of the incompetency or want of
desire for governmental duty on the part of the various
reigning members of the House of Brunswick, the governing
power of the country has been practically limited to a few
families, who have used government in the majority of
instances as a system of machinery for securing place and
pension for themselves and their associates; while it is
submitted that government should be the best contrivance of
national wisdom for the alleviation of national suffering
and promotion of national happiness.
"4th. That a large pension list has been created, the
recipients of the largest pensions being in most cases
persons who are already members of wealthy families, and who
have done nothing whatever to justify their being kept in
idleness at the national expense, while so many workers in
the agricultural districts are in a state of semi-
starvation; so many toilers in large works in Wales,
Scotland, and some parts of England, are in constant debt
and dependence; and while large numbers of the Irish
peasantry -- for ... generations ... denied life at home --
have until lately been driven to seek those means of
existence across the sea which their own fertile land should
have amply provided for them.
"5th. That the monarchs of the Brunswick family have
been, except in a few cases of vicious interference, costly
puppets, useful only to the governing aristocracy as a cloak
to shield the real wrong doers from the just reproaches of
the people.
"6th. That the Brunswick family have shown themselves
utterly incapable of initiating wise legislation....
"7th. That under the Brunswick family the national
expenditure has increased to a frightful extent, while our
best possessions in America have been lost, and our home
possession, Ireland, rendered chronic in its discontent by
the terrible misgovernment under the four Georges.
"8th. That the ever increasing burden of the national
taxation has been shifted from the land onto the shoulders
of the middle and lower classes, the landed aristocracy
having, until lately, enjoyed the practical monopoly of tax-
levying power. ..."
And by way of giving greater force to his arguments, Bradlaugh
concluded the treatise with these challenging words: "I loathe
these small German breast-bestarred wanderers, whose only merit
is their loving hatred of one another. In their own land they
vegetate and wither unnoticed; here we pay them high to marry and
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perpetuate a pauper prince race. If they do nothing they are
'good.' If they do ill, loyalty gilds the vice till it looks like
virtue." [Charles Bradlaugh, "Impeachment of the House of
Brunswick."]
Other Secularist writers, if not so exhaustive in their
arguments, were equally bold. Austin Holyoake, in a pamphlet
entitled 'Would a Republican Form of Government Be Suitable in
England?' (1873), declared, on grounds both of efficiency and
economy, that it would not- J.M. Robertson published pamphlet
entitled 'Why Preserve the Monarchy?' (1887), in which he argued
against its preservation on the ground that it was simply "a
great machine for manufacturing snobs and sycophants." Annie
Besant wrote an article in the National Reformer of January 16,
1887, proposing, in view of the growing expenditures of the
government, that the forthcoming Queen's Jubilee be celebrated by
abolishing the monarchy, Foote brought out three editions of a
pamphlet entitled Royal Paupers, showing what royalty does for
the people. And Charles Watts argued for Republicanism in a
number of pamphlets. [J.M. Robertson, "Why Preserve the
Monarchy?" (1887); Annie Besant, "Why We should Celebrate the
Queen's Jubilee," "National Reformer," January 16, 1887; J.M.
Robertson, "Royalism: a Note on the Queen's Jubilee" (1886); G.W.
Foote, "Royal Paupers; Showing What Royalty Does for the People"
(3rd edition, 1888); Annie Besant, "English Republicanism"
(1878); and George Standring, "Does Royalty Pay?" (1884).]
Besides all this, the Secularists became actively interested
in the working-class section of the strong Republican movement
which manifested itself throughout the country after the Franco-
Prussian War. As the Republican workers followed the device of
forming Republican clubs, several Secular societies constituted
themselves Republican clubs for purposes of the agitation, and
Bradlaugh became the President of the London Republican Club.
Indeed, the Republican club of which Bradlaugh was President took
the initiative in the calling of a conference at Manchester of
delegates of Republican clubs '(May, 1873); and at the Manchester
Conference Bradlaugh, Foote, and other Secularists aided in the
formation of a short-lived National Republican League. [A.S.
Headingley, "Biography of Charles Bradlaugh" (1880), p. 135;
"London Republican Club. The Inaugural Address of the President,
Mr. Charles Bradlaugh," May 12, 1871; "National Reformer,"
January 5, 1873, to September 7, 1873, passim.
In the later stages of the Franco-Prussian War, Bradlaugh
endeavored to aid the newly-established Third French Republic. In
connection with Dr. Richard Congreve, Professor E.S. Beesley, and
other Positivists, he organized a series of public meetings
looking to the termination of hostilities between France and
Prussia on terms as favorable to France as possible. "National
Reformer," September 18, 1870, to January 15, 1871, passim.
Hypatia Bradlaugh Bonner, "Charles Bradlaugh" (1894), I,
312-321.]
Closely associated with the Secular Republican agitation was
the effort of the Secularists to secure the abolition of the
House of Lords. In this work resolutions were passed, petitions
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were presented to Parliament, and many speeches were delivered.
Articles and pamphlets were written, too, for the cause,
sometimes in a spirit of fiery determination. Witness the words
of Mrs. Besant:
"A House in the election of whose members the people
have no voice; a House whose members are born into it,
instead of winning their way into it by service to the
state; a House which is built upon cradles and not upon
merit; a House whose deliberations may be shared in by fools
or by knaves, provided only that the brow be coronetted --
such a House is a disgrace to a free country, and an outrage
on popular liberty. ... The house of Lords must ... [go].
But these things were only a part of what the Secularists did.
When the People's League for the Abolition of the Hereditary
Legislative Chamber was formed, in 1884, the Executive of the
National Secular Society affiliated with the association, while
Foote and R.O. Smith, one of the Vice-Presidents of the National
Secular Society, served on its Administrative Committee.
[Bradlaugh urged that the place of the House of Lords be taken by
a second chamber composed of life members. Bradlaugh's position
was endorsed by the Executive of the National Secular Society in
1874. The bulk of the Secularist lecturers calling for the
abolition of the House of Lords envisaged a single-chamber
government.
"National Reformer," 1866-1890, passim; "Freethinker," 1881-
1890, passim; Hypatia Bradlaugh Bonner, "Charles Bradlaugh"
(1894), I, 264-266 and 393.]
The agitation of the Secularists for the removal of
hereditary elements from the government was paralleled by
determined efforts which they made to bring about universal (male
and female) suffrage. Some of their most fervent work in this
direction was done at the very beginning of the period of
Secularist history now under consideration, when the working
classes were agitating for the reform of Parliament, preceding
the Reform Act of 1867. At this time the Secularists aided the
National Reform League -- as, indeed, they had already begun to
do before the close of the previous Secularist era -- because the
League, though calling only for manhood suffrage and not sharing
the Secularist aim of votes also for women, was traveling a great
distance toward the Secularist goal. Bradlaugh not only served
the League faithfully as one of its Vice-Presidents, but wrote in
the National Reformer and elsewhere in the interest of its cause
and delivered many addresses on its behalf. Holyoake, also,
lectured for the League and served it as Vice-President, Then,
too, Mrs, Harriet Law spoke under the auspices of the League. And
many Secularists of the rank and file assisted the League by
attending mass meetings which it arranged in London and other
cities. ["National Reformer," September 17, 1865, to June 9,
1867, passim; G.J. Holyoake, "Working Class Representation: Its
Conditions and Consequences" (1868), p. 3: Joseph McCabe, "Life
and Letters of George Jacob Holyoake" (1908), II, 11, 17, 23,
25-29, 34, and 35-36; Charles Bradlaugh, "Autobiography of Mr.
Charles Bradlaugh" (1873), p. 18; Hypatia Bradlaugh Bonner,
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"Charles Bradlaugh" (1894) I, 220-237; J.M. Robertson, "Charles
Bradlaugh" (1920), p. 39; G.J. Holyoake, "Sixty Year's of an
Agitator's Life" (1892), II, 86-90; A.S. Headingley, "Biography
of Charles Bradlaugh" (1880). pp. 96-99.]
In the period between the passage of the Reform Act of 1867
with its extension of the suffrage to the mass of city workmen
and the Reform Act of 1884, the agitation of the Secularists in
the direction of votes for all men and women was not extensive.
Nevertheless there were efforts. Bradlaugh and Mrs. Besant
lectured for the cause and one or two appeals were made in the
National Reformer. [Hypatia Bradlaugh Bonner, "Charles
Bradlaugh" (1894), I, 393; Annie Besant, "Civil and Religious
Liberty" (1882), p. 19; Centenary Committee, "Champion of
Liberty: Charles Bradlaugh" (1933), 167-169; Annie Besant, "The
Political Status of Women" (1885); "National Reformer," January
2, 1870, to April 2, 1982.]
After the Reform Act of 1884 had granted voting privileges
to the vast majority of rural workmen, the Secularists leave some
aid to the cause of votes for women. In 1885, J.M. Robertson,
writing in the National Reformer, supported it. In 1885, too,
Annie Besant argued for it in a pamphlet entitled The Political
Status of Women. And in 1886 Bradlaugh, then a member of
Parliament, supported a bill (which failed to pass) calling for
the bestowal upon women of the right of voting for Parliamentary
candidates. [Though voting for the woman suffrage bill of 1886,
Bradlaugh objected to its provision for withholding the suffrage
from married women, and gave notice of his intention to move in
the committee on the bill that the restriction be removed. He
never had the opportunity to do so, as the bill was blocked
before it reached the committee stage.
Annie Besant, "The Political Status of Women" (1885);
"National Reformer." December 13, 1885, to December 26, 1886,
passim.
In connection with the whole subject of the democratic
agitation of the Secularists, it is worth noting that Bradlaugh,
seconded by Annie Besant, opposed imperialistic aggression and
advocated home rule for Ireland, and that Mrs. Besant aided the
cause of women's rights in general. See, for example, "National
Reformer," 1866-1890, passim.]
Along with the foregoing activities, the Secularists of the
Bradlaugh period undertook to achieve various aims looking to a
more comfortable and pleasant life for the great masses of the
people. One of the things they did was to agitate for the opening
of libraries, museums, and art galleries on Sunday. In this
connection their efforts included, first of all, writing and
speaking as Secularists. Foote, for example, in 'Arrows of
Freethought' (1882), declared:
"The Christians ... like going to the Church and public
house on Sunday, and those establishments are permitted to
open; they have no wish to go elsewhere, and so they keep
all other establishments closed. This is mere impudence. Let
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them go where they choose and allow the same freedom to
other people. Those who advocate a free Sunday ask for no
favor; they demand justice. They do not propose to compel
any Christian to enter a museum, a library, or an art
gallery; they simply claim the right to go in themselves.
The denial of that right is a denial of liberty, which every
free man is bound to resent....
"Our toiling masses ... have one day of leisure in the
week. ... Yet the Christian legislature tries its utmost to
spoil the boon. ... Drunkenness is our national vice. ...
Give Englishmen a chance, furnish them with counter
attractions, and they will abjure intoxication like their
Continental neighbors. ..."
In addition to working under their own party name, the
Secularists aided the National Sunday League. Mrs. Besant served
it as one of its Vice-Presidents, and both Holyoake and Bradlaugh
gave it platform assistance in connection with its great public
demonstrations. The labors of the Secularists (and the Sunday
League) were not in vain. By the end of the era of Secularist
history under consideration numbers of art galleries, libraries,
and museums in London and elsewhere were opened to Sunday
visitors. ["Sugar Plums," "Freethinker," 1881-1890, passim; G.W.
Foote, "Sunday Tyranny," "Arrows of Freethought" (1882); Joseph
McCabe. "George Jacob Holyoake" (1922), pp. 36-37 and 67; Annie
Besant, "Annie Besant" (1893), p. 249; "National Reformer,"
1866-1890, passim.]
Social entertainments were also provided by the Secularists.
On various occasions Secularists and their guests participated in
conversation, singing, and dancing, and tea. During the summer
season excursions and picnics were arranged. At attractive
retreats in the country children and grown-ups rambled and played
games, or enjoyed speeches, recitations, and songs. ["National
Reformer," 1866-1890, passim; "Sugar Plums," "Freethinker,"
1881-1890, passim.]
Then, too, by drawing upon an "Endowment Fund" which they
maintained, and which was replenished by popular subscription,
and by entertainments and lectures to which an admission fee was
charged, the Secularists rendered modest financial assistance, as
opportunity permitted, to those among their numbers who were sick
or in distress. ["National Reformer," 1866-1890, passim; A.S.
Headingley, "Biography of Charles Bradlaugh" (1880), p. 119.]
A basic phase of the Secularist activity in the field of
social betterment was concerned with conditions in the rural
districts. The evil state of affairs confronting the common
people in the country roused the Secularists to action.
Embracing, as their mature program, the proposals gradually
worked out by Bradlaugh, they demanded: (1) abolition of the laws
of primogeniture and entail; (2) reduction of the legal expenses
attendant upon the sale of land; (3) abolition of the Game Laws;
(4) compulsory cultivation of land (on the strength of the
principle enunciated by John Stuart Mill and others that private
ownership of land carried with it the public, obligation of its
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improvement); (5) "Security to the tenant cultivator for
improvements"; (6) "Revaluation of lands for the more equitable
imposition of the land tax"; (7) a graduated land tax. [This
program was set forth in its entirety in 1880, One after another
of its proposals had, however, already been called for by
Bradlaugh and other Secularists.] In support of these measures,
in whole or in part, Secularist leaders not only wrote a number
of articles and pamphlets, and delivered numerous addresses, but
took other forms of action as well. Bradlaugh, for example, in
1869, wrote a public letter to Gladstone, who was then Prime
Minister, asking especially for compulsory land cultivation and
Game Laws abolition. Bradlaugh also, in 1880, formed a Land Law
Reform League which carried on an agitation in support of the
Secularist program. Annie Besant and Dr. Aveling served as Vice-
Presidents of the Reform League, and Bradlaugh himself became its
President. As a member of Parliament, though without success,
made strenuous efforts, each year from 1886 to 1890, inclusive,
to secure the support of Parliament to the principle of the
compulsory cultivation of the land. [Charles Bradlaugh, "The
Land Question" (18??); Hypatia Bradlaugh Bonner, "Charles
Bradlaugh," Pt. One, pp. 264 and 393 and Pt. Two (by J.M.
Robertson), pp. 179-184 and 368-369; Annie Besant, "Annie Besant"
(1893), pp 251-252; Annie Besant, "Civil and Religious Liberty"
(187?),.pp. 12-18; C.C. Cattell. "The land: How to Make It Feed
the People and Pay the Taxes" (1879); Charles Bradlaugh, "1880:
Its Work and Promise," "National Secular Society's Almanac,"
1881, p. 15; "Freethinker," passim; "National Reformer,"
1866-1890, passim.]
The Secularists of the Bradlaugh era undertook to strike at
the poverty of the rural and urban masses alike by means of
efforts looking to smaller working-class families; and, as the
best means of preventing large families, they exerted themselves
in the interest of birth control. To this end they not only
carried on an agitation in favor of birth control, but sold
literature containing instructions as to the proper methods of
effecting its accomplishment. In the first decade of the period
their activity in this sphere was not extensive. They did,
however, deliver addresses from time to time in advocacy of birth
control, and they circulated a few pamphlets of propaganda and
instruction, such as The Fruits of Philosophy (1832), by the
American physician, Dr. Charles Knowlton. [G.J. Holyoake and
Charles Bradlaugh, "Secularism, Science, and Atheism' (1870), pp.
31-32; Annie Besant, "The Law of Population" (1878); Hypatia
Bradlaugh Bonner, "Charles Bradlaugh" (1894), 11, 16-17;
"National Reformer," April 26, 1869, to December 3, 1876,
passim.]
The year 1877 saw a remarkable intensification of Secularist
birth-control activity. This grew out of circumstances connected
with the Knowlton pamphlet. On January 8, 1877, Charles Watts was
arrested for publishing 'The Fruits of Philosophy,' on the ground
that the work was obscene. When the trial came on, Watts pleaded
guilty, and was released under suspended judgment. Charles
Bradlaugh, Annie Besant and others, believing not only that
birth-control literature for the masses was imperiled, but
feeling that the situation involved the whole matter of a free
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press, strongly condemned Watts for not fighting the charge that
had been made against him, Bradlaugh going so far as to deprive
him of his sub-editorship of the 'National Reformer' and to cease
patronizing his printing and publishing concern: and Bradlaugh
and Mrs. Besant, after now establishing a firm of their own --
the Freethought Publishing Company -- proceeded to publish the
treatise themselves, notifying the authorities, at the same time,
of their action. But the publication of the Knowlton pamphlet was
only a part of the expanded birth-control agitation. Both
Bradlaugh and Mrs. Besant were prosecuted and were condemned to
six months' imprisonment, though the sentence was subsequently
quashed on a legal technicality; and in the course of the trial
Mrs. Besant eloquently stated the case for birth control. At the
same time, by extensively publicizing their trial, the two
defendants at once called attention to the birth control
propaganda and promoted the sale of the pamphlet which they had
published. Furthermore, Bradlaugh founded a new Malthusian League
(the one which he established in 1861 had died some 10 years
previously) which spread the gospel of birth control for half a
century; and Mrs. Besant issued a pamphlet of her own, under the
title 'The Law of Population,' advocating birth control and
giving advice as to harmless ways of achieving it. [Charles
Bradlaugh and Annie Besant, Editors, "In the High Court of
Justice: Queen's Bench Division, June 18, 1877. The Queen v.
Charles Bradlaugh and Annie Besant. A verbatim report of the
proceedings of the trial of Bradlaugh and Besant for publishing
the Knowlton Pamphlet" (Third edition, 1878); Hypatia Bradlaugh
Bonner, "Charles Bradlaugh" (1894), II, 20-29; Annie Besant,
"Annie Besant" (1893), pp. 205-213 and 220; Norman E. Himes,
"Medical History of Contraception" (1936), pp. 239-240 and
245-251; Annie Besant, "The Law of Population" (author's American
edition, 1878); "National Reformer," January 14, 1877, to May 5,
1878, passim.]
In the later years of the Bradlaugh period the activity of
the Secularists in the interest of birth control, though less
extensive than that of 1877, was considerable. One part of it
took place in connection with the case of the highly-respected
Secularist bookseller, Edward Truelove. In 1878 Truelove was
tried, sentenced, and compelled to undergo four months'
imprisonment and pay a fine of 50 pounds for selling two birth-
control pamphlets -- Robert Dale Owen's 'Moral Physiology' and
J.H. Palmer's 'Individual, Family' and National Poverty.' As they
had recently done in connection with the Bradlaugh-Besant
prosecution, the Secularists utilized the Truelove case to
advance the propaganda of birth control by giving the affair
extensive publicity in the Secularist press. The other part of
the Secularist activity was less sensational, but it extended
over a longer period of time and was perhaps in the end no less
effective. Secularist booksellers continued to circulate 'The Law
of Population' and other works of advice and instruction.
Secularist lecturers also made, frequent appeals throughout the
country. And J.M. Robertson wrote articles of advocacy in the
'National Reformer.' [Norman E. Himes, "Medical History of
Contraception" (1936), pp. 240-243; J.M. Robertson, "Socialism
and Malthusianism" (1885); Annie Besant, "Annie Besant" (1893),
pp. 228-231; A.S. Headingley, "Biography of Charles Bradlaugh"
(1880), Preface in; "National Reformer," 1878-1890, passim.]
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The Secularist birth-control activity was of significance,
in at least two respects: it influenced the internal affairs of
the Secularist Movement, and it made itself felt in the life of
the nation as a whole. Each of these forms of influence demands,
in turn, a word of explanation.
Bradlaugh, as will be recalled, in his displeasure at
Charles Watts for refusing to defend himself in court as the
publisher of Dr. Knowlton's pamphlet, not only removed Watts from
the sub-editorship of the National Reformer, but ceased to do
business with Watts' printing and publishing concern. Both men
appealed to the Secular party for moral support, and when, at the
Annual Conference of the National Secular Society, held a few
months afterwards, Bradlaugh was reelected as President, Watts
declined to accept a nomination for a Vice-Presidency and, a few
days later, resigned from the National Secular Society.
Alongside of this, differences developed in another quarter.
Holyoake felt himself to have been aggrieved because Annie Besant
had asserted, in the Bradlaugh-Besant trial, that Holyoake had
sold the treatise by Knowlton on his own account, instead of
declaring that he had sold it as the "agent" of another
publisher; and he became still more displeased because Bradlaugh,
in a public statement, seemed to him to imply that the National
Secular Society endorsed the Knowlton pamphlet. As a result,
Holyoake resigned the office of Vice-President of the National
Secular Society and, like Watts, withdrew from the association.
Though Holyoake and Watts were both in sympathy with birth
control, they came to disapprove of Dr. Knowlton's particular
treatment of the subject. Other Secularists shared this attitude.
Still others of the Secular body either were opposed outright to
birth control or felt that its championship by the Secularists
was inexpedient.
Under the circumstances, Watts and Holyoake led some of the
dissatisfied Secularists out of the National Secular Society, and
with them founded the British Secular Union, the origin and brief
history of which have been alluded to in an earlier connection.
[William Stewart Ross, "Sketch of the Life and Character of C.
Watts" (188?), pp. 5-6: G.J. Holyoake, "The Warpath of Opinion"
(189?), pp. 27-35; "High Court of Justice, June 19," "Times,"
June 20, 1877; G.M. Williams, "The Passionate Pilgrim" (1931) pp.
77-93; Joseph McCabe, "Life and Letters of George Jacob Holyoake"
(1908), II, 77 and 79-85; A.S. Headingley, "Biography of Charles
Bradlaugh" (1880), pp. 163-165; "National Reformer," January 28
to August 5, 1877, passim; "Secular Review and Secularist," June
30 to July 28, 1877, passim.]
The influence of the Secularist birth-control agitation upon
the country at large was significant. In the first place, despite
the harsh -- and evil foul -- criticism which the campaign
evoked, it evidently promoted the practice of birth control on a
more extensive scale than had been the case hitherto. This is
indicated, for one thing, by the wide diffusion of the Secularist
propaganda. Approximately 100,000 copies of the Bradlaugh-Besant
edition of the Knowlton pamphlet were sold within the three
months following its publication, to say nothing of scores of
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thousands of copies of the editions of earlier publishers. Then,
too, some 150,000 copies of Annie Besant's 'Law of Population'
were sold. And an undetermined number of persons read other
literature written or distributed by the Secularists, or heard
Secularist lectures, or came under the influence of the
Malthusian League. The Secularist promotion of birth control is
further indicated by the late-modern decline of the English birth
rate, which had its beginning at the very time the Secularist
propaganda achieved its greatest prominence -- in 1877, the year
of the prosecution of Bradlaugh and Mrs. Besant. ["National
Reformer," April 15, 1877, to July 26, 1891, passim; Norman E.
Himes, "Medical History of Contraception" (1936), 243-245 and
259; Annie Besant, "The Law of Population" (1877); Charles
Bradlaugh and Annie Besant, Editor,9, "In the High Court of
Justice; Queen's Bench Division, June 18, 1877. The Queen v.
Charles Bradlaugh and Annie Besant"; Hypatia Bradlaugh Bonner,
"Charles Bradlaugh" (1894), Pt. 'Two (by J. M. Robertson), pp-
175-177; Annie Besant, "Annie Besant" (1893), pp. 224 and 229.]
Besides increasing the practice of contraception, the
Secularist birth-control agitation (and from the point of view of
the Secularists this was the important matter) alleviated to a
degree some of the evils endured by the working classes. As we
have seen, the low wages and the periodic unemployment of the
British masses in the middle of the 19th century were associated
with the excessively large number of laborers available to the
employing classes. In so far, then, as the Secularists by their
promotion of birth control lessened this overpopulation, to that
extent they reduced the poverty and insecurity of the workers.
[The efforts of Holyoake to improve the lot of the working
classes by rendering assistance to the Cooperative Movement have
been alluded to in another connection.]
The Secularists of the Bradlaugh era likewise endeavored to
secure the promotion of Secular education. This part of their
activity involved at once the operation of Secular schools of
their own and efforts looking to the furtherance of Secular
education in other schools of the country
Secularist schools, operated in connection with local
Secular societies, were to be found in such large industrial
centers as London, Manchester, Liverpool, Glasgow, and Leeds, as
well as in many smaller places. Although instruction was given in
numerous subjects, including music, logic, and debating, chief
emphasis was placed upon courses in the sciences, As a rule, the
Secularist schools were open only on Sundays, though occasionally
a week night was utilized. Among those who taught or lectured
were such gifted individuals as Charles Watts, Dr. Edward B.
Aveling, Annie Besant, and Bradlaugh himself. To facilitate the
work, several manuals were used which were written by Secularist
teachers. Typical of these were Annie Besant's 'Heat, Light, and
Sound' (1881), 'General Biology' (1882), by Dr. Aveling, and
'Chemistry of the Home' (1881), by Bradlaugh's daughter, Hypatia
Bradlaugh. ["National Reformer," 1866-1890, passim;
"Freethinker," 1881-1890, passim; "National Secular Society's
Almanac," passim; Annie Besant, "Annie Besant" (1893), pp.
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246-251; A.S. Headingley, "Biography of Charles Bradlaugh"
(1880), pp. 22 and 119; Hypatia Bradlaugh, "Chemistry of the
Home" (1881); Annie Besant, "Physiology of the Home" (1891);
Annie Besant, "Light, Heat and Sound" (1881).]
In furthering Secular education in non-Secular schools, both
before and after the Education Act of 1870 decreed the
establishment of non-denominational state schools as a supplement
to the state-aided Church schools, the Secularists worked for a
national system of state-controlled, state-supported schools
providing exclusively Secular education. In doing so they were
active in various ways. For one thing, they wrote and frequently
lectured. Then, too, numerous Secularists (including Dr. Aveling
and Mrs. Besant) secured positions as members of the elected
"boards of education" which controlled the state schools. And
Secularist parents often took advantage of a permissive clause in
the Education Act of 1870 to withdraw their children from
religious instruction in "board" schools." [G.J. Holyoake,
"English Secularism" (1896), pp. 61-62 and 70; Geoffrey West,
"The Life of Annie Besant" (1929), p. 89; Hypatia Bradlaugh
Bonner, "Charles Bradlaugh" (1894), I, 264; Joseph McCabe, "Life
and Letters of George Jacob Holyoake" (1908), II, 40 and 51-53;
"Sugar Plums," "Freethinker," 1881-1890, passim; "National
Reformer," 1866-1890, passim.]
Hand in hand with these various forms of agitation went the
campaign which the Secularists of the Bradlaugh period waged for
the removal of existing barriers to the free expression of
opinion. In this connection their action involved, first of all,
efforts to undermine the foundation of all such barriers by
developing in the public mind attitudes hostile to them. To this
end Secularist writers and speakers argued eloquently in favor of
intellectual freedom. Observe the ringing words of Annie Besant:
"I crave for every man, whatever be his creed, that his
freedom of conscience be held sacred. I ask for every man,
whatever be his belief, that he shall not suffer, in civil
matters, for his faith or his want of faith. I demand for
every man, whatever be his opinions, that he shall be able
to speak out with honest frankness the results of honest
thought, without forfeiting his rights as citizen, without
destroying his social position, and without troubling his
domestic peace. ..." [Annie Besant, "Civil and Religious
Liberty" (1882), pp. 20-21. See also the following: G.J.
Holyoake and Charles Bradlaugh, "Secularism, Science, and
Atheism" (1870), pp. 26-27; G.J. Holyoake, "Secularism, a
Religion Which Gives Heaven No Trouble" (1881), pp. 4-6 and
14; Charles Bradlaugh, "The Attitude of Freethought in
Polities," "National Reformer," January 27, 1894; and Annie
Besant, "Why Should Atheists Be Persecuted?" (1884).]
In addition to working for intellectual liberty in general
by trying to discredit collectively all barriers to it, the
Secularists endeavored to promote its achievement in limited
spheres by laboring to destroy various obstacles to it
individually. One of the most striking phases of this work was a
series of struggles to break down governmental interference with
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the right of public meeting. The first such encounter occurred in
1866, when the Government issued orders forbidding the Reform
League to hold a meeting scheduled to take place on, July 23 in
Hyde Park. Bradlaugh, who was then cooperating with the League,
not only recommended that the meeting be held despite the orders
of the Government, but urged Secularists to attend it; and when,
as the crowds assembled for the meeting, the police manifested an
intention to use force to prevent it from being held, he helped
lead the assembled multitude to Trafalgar Square, where the
meeting took place. [A.S. Headingley, "Biography of Charles
Bradlaugh" (1880), pp. 96-99; Hypatia Bradlaugh Bonner, "Charles
Bradlaugh" (1894), I, 220-237; "National Reformer." July 22 and
29, 1866, and August 31, 1873.]
Another clash followed the prohibition by the Government of
a meeting in Trafalgar Square planned for July 31, 1871, by G.
Odger and some of his friends to protest against a governmental
grant to Prince Arthur. Bradlaugh joined with Odger in freshly
convoking the meeting, and, when the Government threatened and
prepared to use force, Bradlaugh reminded the Home Secretary, Mr.
Bruce, that the use of force would be illegal and would be
resisted. Some 30 minutes before the meeting was held, the
Government rescinded its prohibitory notice. [Charles Bradlaugh,
"Another Victory Over the Government," "National Reformer,"
August 6, 1871; Charles Bradlaugh, "Autobiography of Mr. Charles
Bradlaugh," "National Reformer," August 31, 1873; A.S.
Headingley, "Biography of Charles Bradlaugh" (1880), pp.
132-133.]
In 1872, after a group of individuals had been convicted for
holding meeting in Hyde Park on November 3 in violation of
certain regulations issued by Mr. Ayrton, Commissioner of Works,
Bradlaugh entered a third encounter with the authorities by
convoking a meeting for December 1 in the Park to protest against
the obnoxious restrictions. The meeting was allowed to be held,
and when Parliament met the regulations were annulled.
["National Reformer," November 24 and December 1 and 8, 1872, and
August 31, 1873.]
Finally, in 1888, Bradlaugh, then a member of Parliament,
endeavored, though unsuccessfully, to bring about a Parliamentary
inquiry into the conduct of the police on November 13, 1887, when
they violently interfered with a public meeting which the
Federation of Metropolitan Radical Clubs was holding in Trafalgar
Square." ["National Reformer," November 20, 1877, to March 18,
1888, passim.]
Side by side with all this went Secularist action looking to
the removal of existing limitations on free expression in the
press. One phase of this was efforts to get rid of the Security
Laws -- enactments, it will be recalled, which stipulated that
newspapers must provide security against seditious or blasphemous
utterances. The fight against the Security Laws was brought on in
1868. Following the example of Secularist periodicals such as the
Reasoner and the Investigator, and, indeed, of numerous other
papers, Bradlaugh had brought out the 'National Reformer' since
its foundation without providing the security called for by the
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Security Laws. For the eight years during which the paper had
been published the Government had ignored the situation. In fact,
the general enforcement of the Security Laws had for several
years been so ineffectual that they were really obsolescent. This
was the state of affairs in 1868 when the Government brought on
the Secularist campaign against the Security Laws by requesting
Bradlaugh to provide security against blasphemous or seditious
utterances in the National Reformer, and, upon his refusal to do
so, by prosecuting him for publishing the National Reformer
without providing the security. In carrying on the struggle the
Secularists worked both in the court room and in the country at
large. In the court room, Bradlaugh, who argued his own case,
frustrated the designs of the Government at almost every turn,
and so discouraged it in its efforts to carry forward the
prosecution to a successful conclusion that in the end it allowed
the case to be dropped. In the country at large, the Secularists
not only raised substantially all the funds required for meeting
Bradlaugh's expenses in connection with the litigation, but
worked directly for the repeal of the Security Laws by holding
meetings and filing petitions with Parliament. The two-fold
course of action on the part of the Secularists, together with
cooperating efforts by Milnor Gibson, John Stuart Mill, E.H.J.
Cranford, and other Members of Parliament, produced effective
results. The Government, discouraged at last in its efforts to
enforce the Security Laws, and impressed by the general
agitation, decided to repeal the obnoxious statutes -- a decision
which it carried out before the end of the year 1869. ["National
Reformer," May 3, 1868, to May 2, 1861). passim; Hypatia
Bradlaugh Bonner, "Penalties Upon Opinion" (2 Ed., 1913). pp,
78-80; Charles Bradlaugh, "Autobiography of Charles Bradlaugh"
(1873), pp. 19-20; C.D. Collet, "History of the Taxes on
Knowledge" (1899), pp. 146-207.]
There were two other phases of the action taken by the
Secularists in behalf of an unrestricted freedom of the press,
both of which were tied up, though in different ways, with the
prosecution of Secularists for circulating pamphlets favorable to
birth control. The first phase grew out of the trial of Charles
Watts for publishing Dr. Knowlton's The Fruits of Philosophy,,
and the second was connected with the trial, fine, and
imprisonment of Edward Truelove for selling Moral Physiology, by
Robert Dale Owen, and Individual, Family, and National Poverty,
by H.H. Palmer. With regard to the first phase, after Watts,
instead of fighting the charge against him on the strength of his
right to publish, had pleaded guilty and had been released under
suspended sentence (1877), the Secularist body as a whole,
apprehending the danger which the case involved to the liberty of
the press (and to the cause of birth control), itself entered
into a struggle with the authorities. Bradlaugh and Annie Besant,
who played the leading roles in the fight, boldly issued their
own edition of the Knowlton pamphlet, and, when brought to trial
for doing, so, defended their action (and the cause of a free
press) in the courts, At the same time, Secularists raised the
funds needed for the payment of the legal expenses of Bradlaugh
and Mrs. Besant, and the Secularist writers brought the whole
affair prominently before the public in terms favorable to the
free-press Cause. ["National Reformer," April 1, 1877, to
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December, 29, 1878, passim; Annie Besant, "Annie Besant" (1893),
p. 231; Geoffrey West, "Life of Annie Besant" (1929), pp. 90-96;
Hypatia Bradlaugh Bonner, "Charles Bradlaugh" (1894), II,. 20-29;
J.M. Robertson, "Charles Bradlaugh" (1920), pp. 58-63; Irene
Clephane, "Towards Sex Freedom" (1935), pp. 102-108; Norman E.
Himes, "Medical History of Contraception" (1936), pp. 239-240.]
As for the phase of Secularist action which was related to
the prosecution of Edward Truelove, the Secularists gave Truelove
(and the cause) support by writing sympathetically in the
Secularist press, by raising funds which covered the defendant's
expenses in the case, and by vainly presenting memorials to the
Home Secretary asking for the prisoner's release. ["National
Reformer," May 20, 1877, to December 29, 1878. passim; Norman E.
Himes, "Medical History of Contraception" (1936), pp. 240-243;
Annie Besant, "Annie Besant" (1893), p. 231.]
As a further part of their efforts in the interest of
intellectual freedom within limited spheres, the Secularists of
the Bradlaugh period worked for the equality of every form of
opinion in the eyes of the law. To this end they endeavored, for
one thing, to secure the right of affirmation instead of oath-
taking for all persons not already eligible to affirm -- in a
word, for the non-religious. The first two or three years of the
period under discussion witnessed a considerable amount of such
activity. Encouraged by the Executive of the National Secular
Society, Secularists in all parts of the country sent petitions
to Parliament. Bradlaugh communicated privately with Members of
Parliament and wrote in the National Reformer. Holyoake, who was
especially energetic in his efforts, urged witnesses to decline
the oath, drew up petitions, delivered lectures, and interviewed
Members of Parliament. [National Reformer," December 6, 1868, to
March 20, 1870, passim; Hypatia Bradlaugh Bonner, "Charles
Bradlaugh" (1894), I, 288-289; G.J. Holyoake, "English
Secularism" (1896), p. 119; Joseph McCabe, "Life and Letters, of
George Jacob Holyoake" (1908), II, 46-49.]
This early agitation came to a close when, in August, 1869,
there was passed the Evidence Further Amendment Act, the fourth
section of which declared:
"If any person called to give evidence in any court of
justice whether in a civil or criminal procedure, shall
object to take an oath, or shall be objected to as
incompetent to take an oath, such person shall, if the
presiding judge is satisfied that the taking of an oath
would have no binding effect on his conscience, make a
promise or declaration." ["The Acts of Parliament Bearing
upon the Question of Affirmation," "National Reformer,"
January 31, 1875; Hypatia Bradlaugh Bonner, "Charles
Bradlaugh" (1894), I, 286; "Oath," "Chambers'
Encyclopedia."]
The Secularists had good reason to rejoice not only at the
enactment of section four of the Evidence Further Amendment Act,
but because their agitation had helped prepare Members of
Parliament for favorable action on it. John Stuart Mill wrote to
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A HISTORY OF THE BRITISH SECULAR MOVEMENT
Holyoake: "You may justly take to yourself a good share of the
credit of having brought things to that pass." [Joseph McCabe,
"Life and Letters of George Jacob Holyoake" (1908), II, 46-48;
G.J. Holyoake, "The Warpath of Opinion" (189?); G.J. Holyoake,
"English Secularism" (1896), p. 119; G.J. Holyoake, "Bygones
Worth Remembering" (1905) II, 209-210; "Holyoake, George Jacob,"
"Chambers' Encyclopedia"; Charles Bradlaugh. "The Oath Question,"
"National Reformer," May 16, 1869; "Secular Progress," "National
Reformer," June 20, 1869; Hypatia Bradlaugh Bonner, "Charles
Bradlaugh" (1894), I, 288-289.]
Before many weeks had elapsed, however, the Secularists were
made forcibly aware that the legislation extending the right of
affirmation was by no means as inclusive as their interests
demanded. The Act went into effect on August 9, 1869. In December
of the same year Bradlaugh, who was then plaintiff in a lawsuit
in the Court of Common Pleas, was not permitted to testify before
an arbitrator appointed to ascertain a special fact in the case.
It will be recalled that the act of 1869 had used the term
"presiding judge." The arbitrator in question declined to receive
Bradlaugh's evidence on the ground that, as merely an arbitrator,
he was not a presiding judge and so was not qualified under the
act to satisfy himself as to whether the taking of an oath would
have no binding effect on Bradlaugh's conscience. ["National
Reformer," December 12, 1869, to January 30, 1870, passim; and
August 31, 1873.]
Although Bradlaugh, after appealing in vain to the Court of
Common Pleas to direct the arbitrator to accept his testimony,
carried his case to the Court of Exchequer Chamber and, in May,
1870, was heard (and given a verdict in his own favor), the
Secularists did not wait until the outcome of the case was known
to do something about the situation in which the refusal of
Bradlaugh's testimony had shown them to be placed. Upon the
refusal of the Court of Common Pleas to direct the arbitrator to
receive Bradlaugh's evidence, they began a course of action by
which they sought to get section four of the Evidence Further
Amendment Act amended in such manner as to give to all
commissioners and other officers and persons authorized to
administer or take oaths or depositions in any civil or criminal
proceedings, power to take affirmation in lieu of oath in the
same manner as had been by the said section enacted that a
presiding judge might with reference to witnesses before any
court. Under the leadership especially of Bradlaugh, Secular
societies and individuals sent to Parliament more than 200
petitions on the subject. Bradlaugh, Charles Watts, and Austin
Holyoake agitated in the National Reformer. Bradlaugh wrote to
Members of Parliament. ["National Reformer," January 2, 1870, to
April 28, 1878, passim; A.S. Headingley, "Biography of Charles
Bradlaugh" (1880), pp. 119-123 and 124-125.]
All this led George Denman, M.P., and other political
leaders to become interested in the matter, and to the passage,
in August, 1870, of the Evidence Amendment Act, by which the
fourth section of the Evidence Further Amendment Act was amended
in such a way as to meet the situation revealed in the Bradlaugh
case. The exact words of the act are these:
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"The words 'court of justice,' and the words 'presiding
judge,' in section four of the ... Evidence Further
Amendment Act, 1869, shall be deemed to include any person
or persons having by law authority to administer an oath."
[A.S. Headingley, "Biography of Charles Bradlaugh" (1880),
pp. 119-123; "Conference of the National Secular Society,"
"National Reformer," October 2, 1870; "The Acts of
Parliament Bearing on the Question of Affirmation,"
"National Reformer," January 31, 1875.]
Even after the act of 1870 had been passed, the legislation
permitting affirmation of Freethinkers did not cover all
situations in which they might wish to affirm, nor did either the
act of 1869 or that of 1870 extend to Scotland. The result was
that the Secularists soon began to demand a further remedial
enactment. They endeavored now to have the law applied to the
United Kingdom in its entirety, and to get it broadened so as to
permit heretical jurymen to affirm instead of taking an oath, and
so as to follow the substitution in the case of Freethinkers of
solemn declarations for affidavits in interlocutory proceedings.
Their efforts along these lines were exerted between 1873 and
1880, and were for the most part made up of the filing with
Parliament of petitions. Through the agency of the National
Secular Society, 85 petitions, with 8,806 signatures were
presented in a single Parliamentary session; and many additional
petitions were presented in other sessions. [Charles Watts,
"Retrospect of 1876," "National Secular Society's Almanac for
1877" (1876), p.. 16; Hypatia Bradlaugh Bonner, "Charles
Bradlaugh" (1894), I, 278; "National Reformer," January 5, 1873,
to June 16, 1978, passim.]
Secularist agitation for the extension of the right of
affirmation was uninterruptedly continued for eight years after
1880. Indeed, the period from 1880 to 1888 witnessed a campaign
more spirited and more extensive in scope than that of the
preceding seven years. At the same time, the objective sought was
(ultimately) more comprehensive than it had been in the earlier
period. The campaign in the 80's can be better understood after a
hasty glance at the Bradlaugh Parliamentary Struggle, inasmuch as
this Parliamentary conflict was tied up with the question of the
right of Bradlaugh (and by implication the right of secular-
minded persons generally) to be admitted to Membership in
Parliament (having been duly elected) by making an affirmation of
allegiance, or even by taking the customary oath.
In 1880 Bradlaugh was elected by the voters of the Borough
of Northampton to Membership in the House of Commons. Upon
presenting himself for the purpose of being seated by the House,
Bradlaugh asked to be permitted to affirm instead of taking the
oath, basing his claim upon the Evidence Amendment Acts, 1869 and
1870, which as will be recalled, permitted affirmation in courts
of justice, and upon the parliamentary Oaths Act, 1866 (as
amended), which gave the right to affirm in Parliament to Quakers
and all other persons "for the time being permitted by law to
make an affirmation in lieu of taking an oath." A Select
Committee, appointed by the House to give consideration to
Bradlaugh's request, denied his right to affirm. He then
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announced his intention of taking the oath. Again a Select
Committee was appointed by the House to look into the matter, and
this body declared against his being allowed to take the oath,
asserting, by way of justification for the decision, that in
their judgment an oath would have no binding effect on his
conscience; but the Committee went on to recommend that he be
allowed to affirm at his legal peril. The House rejected the
recommendation of the Committee that Bradlaugh be allowed to
affirm. Bradlaugh then again presented himself and asked to be
sworn, but a hostile majority of the House peremptorily refused
to permit him to take the oath, and, upon his refusal to
withdraw, had him removed by the Sergeant-at-arms to the Clock
Tower of the House, where he was held until the following day. A
few days later, Gladstone, then Prime Minister, moved that
Members-elect be permitted to affirm, at their legal peril; and,
when the motion was carried, Bradlaugh took his seat. But upon
his first voting, the matter was carried into the courts, and, in
the spring of 1881, his seat was declared vacated. All this was
only a part of the contest. For almost five years after Bradlaugh
was Unseated the struggle continued in the House of Commons (from
the precincts of which Bradlaugh was on one occasion forcibly
ejected by four messengers and 10 policemen after a terrific
struggle), in the courts, and in the country at large, where
Secularists and other supporters of Bradlaugh wrote, held
hundreds of indignation meetings, signed petitions, and raised
expense funds, and where the opposition expressed its attitude
through meetings, petitions, and denunciations. Finally, after
Bradlaugh was elected for the fifth time by his Northampton
supporters, in the general election of 1885, a new Speaker,
ruling that a motion to prevent Bradlaugh from taking the oath
would be out of order, allowed him to take his seat (January 13,
1886). ["National Reformer," March 14, 1880, to January 24,
1886, passim; Hypatia Bradlaugh Bonner, "Charles Bradlaugh"
(1894), Part One, I, 144, 263-279, and 392-400, and Part Two (by
J.M. Robertson), pp. 203-367 and 370; Annie Besant, "Annie
Besant" (1893), pp. 253-276 and 313-314.
Holyoake always refused to take the oath, and publicly
criticized Bradlaugh, in the course of the Parliamentary
struggle, for being, willing to take it in the House of Commons.
"N.S.S. Conference," "National Reformer," June 12, 1881; Annie
Besant, "Oath-Taking," "National Reformer," May 8, 1881; G.J.
Holyoake, "Bygones Worth Remembering" (1905), I, 28; G.J.
Holyoake, "The Warpath of Opinion" (189?), pp. 41-50.]
The Bradlaugh Parliamentary Struggle was colored by other
things than the legal rights (or disabilities) of heretical
Members-elect of Parliament. Religious animosity pure and simple
was back of a great deal of the hostility to Bradlaugh's being
permitted to take his seat. Dislike for Bradlaugh's Republicanism
and for his advocacy of family limitation through contraception
were also factors in the conflict. Political intrigue, too,
played a part -- as when the so-called Fourth Party, composed of
Lord Randolph Churchill and other Conservatives, endeavored with
hypocritical piety to embarrass the Liberal Prime Minister,
Gladstone, who, though religious, was not disposed to make
trouble for Bradlaugh, by making a noisy issue of the Bradlaugh
case. [R.C.K. Ensor, "England, 1870-1914" (1936), pp. 67-68; John
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Morley, "Life of Gladstone" (1903), III, 11-21; J.M. Robertson,
"A History of Freethought in the 19th Century" (1930), II,
427-429 and 433.] Despite these facts, the Secularists quickly
realized, as the conflict got under way, that more-inclusive
legislation in the interest of affirmation for Freethinkers was
needed than already existed or had been felt by the Secularists
to be needed. They saw clearly that there was needed legislation
which would not only embrace what they had for the past seven
years been seeking but would include also the assurance that
freethinking Members-elect of Parliament who objected to taking
the oath or who were objected to as incompetent to take the oath
might be seated through making an affirmation. Accordingly, a
Secularist course of action looking to such legislation was
undertaken, though, thanks to the circumstances of the moment,
the entire program was not always worked for at a given time.
From 1880 to 1885 the action of the Secularists took the
form of efforts to secure the passage of a law permitting
affirmation to Members-elect in Parliament. When, in the early
stages of the Bradlaugh Parliamentary Struggle, a bill
authorizing affirmation in Parliament was twice unsuccessfully
introduced by Henry Labouchere, Member for Northampton, the
Secularists supported it by holding meetings and sending
petitions to Parliament. And when the government, in 1883, vainly
attempted the passage of a Parliamentary affirmation bill, the
Secularists petitioned Parliament in its favor. ["National
Reformer," April 17, 1881, to March 25, 1883, passim.]
Beginning early in 1885 the Secularist agitation assumed a
broader form. There was introduced into Parliament at this time,
by C.H. Hopwood, a bill permitting affirmation to all persons in
every situation where the existing law called for an oath. On
Bradlaugh's initiative, the Secularists made this broader aim
their own, and supported the Hopwood bill by sending petitions to
Parliament. In the following year, they worked through
resolutions and petitions for the passage of a bill, which,
introduced by Sergeant Simon (later Sir John Simon) after the
failure of Hopwood's measure to become a law, substituted
affirmation for oath-taking in all cases outside courts of
justice -- though in supporting this bill they did so in the
expectation that it would be amended in the committee stage so as
to conform truly to their aims. The most impressive action which
the Secularists took in support of their broader program,
however, was taken after Simon's measure had been blocked, and
was in connection with the affirmation legislation which
Bradlaugh himself sponsored. ["National Reformer," 1885-1886,
passim.]
Bradlaugh did not introduce his bill immediately upon
becoming recognized as a Member of Parliament, inasmuch as at
that time, as has been seen, he and his Secularist colleagues
were supporting Simon's measure. Indeed, he did not originally
plan to introduce the bill at all. As arranged at the outset --
that is, after the failure of Simon's measure -- Simon himself
was to bring in a bill exactly along the lines envisaged by the
Secularists. But Simon's health became uncertain and it was
agreed that the new measure be taken in charge by Bradlaugh.
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Backed by Secularist and other supporters, the bill was first
introduced in 1887, but was blocked. Bradlaugh again brought it
forward in January, 1888, and this time -- aided by petitions and
resolutions from Secularists and others -- carried it forward to
a successful conclusion. As enacted the measure was exactly as
the Secularists desired it, except for a few relatively
inconsequential words which said that for the individual to enjoy
the right to affirm he must state either that he is without
religious belief or that the taking of an oath is not in keeping
with his religious belief. The exact language of the bill -- the
so-called Oaths Act -- is as follows:
"Every person upon objecting to being sworn, and
stating, as the ground of such objection, either that he has
no religious belief, or that the taking of an oath is
contrary to his religious belief, shall be permitted to make
his solemn affirmation instead of taking an oath in all
places and for all purposes where an oath is or shall be
required by law, which affirmation shall be of the same
force and effect as if he had taken the oath."
The Oaths Act became law near the close of 1888. ["National
Reformer," December 26, 1886, to January 20, 1889, passim;
Centenary Committee, "Champion of Liberty: Charles Bradlaugh"
(1933), pp. 322-323.]
Thus, thanks to the Secularists and those who cooperated
with them, the unrestricted right of affirmation for non-
religious persons ultimately became a reality. The fact that the
gain was only achieved in piecemeal fashion over a period of many
years simply brings more forcibly to the attention the
earnestness and conscientious sincerity of those who achieved it.
Along with their affirmation campaign, the Secularists of
the Bradlaugh epoch undertook two other lines of action to secure
equality before the law for all forms of opinion. They endeavored
to achieve the disestablishment of the State Church, and they
worked for the repeal of the blasphemy laws. In their efforts
looking to the disestablishment of the State Church the
Secularists of the period under discussion were active in a
variety of ways. Bradlaugh, in 1886, voted as a Member of
Parliament for Henry Richard's motion' for the disestablishment
of the Church in Wales and in favor of Dr. Cameron's motion to
disestablish the Church in Scotland. Annie Besant wrote several
tracts urging the disestablishment of the Church of England. And
Bradlaugh, Mrs. Besant, G.W. Foote, and numerous other Secularist
speakers pleaded the cause of disestablishment from rostrums in
all parts of the country. [Annie Besant, "Threatenings and
Slaughters" (1886); Annie Besant, "For the Crown and Against the
Nation" (1886); "National Secular Society's Almanac for 1887"
(1886); "National Reformer," 1886-1890, passim.]
The campaign which the Secularists of the Bradlaugh era
carried on for the repeal of the blasphemy laws was for quite a
number of years a rather lifeless one. Despite warnings from
Bradlaugh, the Secularists as a body were disposed to feel -- as
once they had done in earlier days -- that the blasphemy laws
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were obsolete, and that agitation against them was unnecessary.
Nevertheless, they did send to Parliament a number of petitions
on the subject. ["National Secular Society's Almanac for 1977"
(1876), p. 16; "National Reformer," 1866-1890, passim.]
This apathetic agitation was still in progress when, in the
early 80's, some four or five Secularists were prosecuted on the
charge of violating the blasphemy laws. The first case was
brought on at the behest of Sir Henry Tyler, M.P., and involved
an indictment for publishing or causing to be published certain
"blasphemous libels" in the Freethinker of May 28, 1882. At the
outset the charge was made against Foote, the editor, W.J.
Ramsey, the publisher, and E.W. Whittle, the printer; but, early
in the proceedings, the name of Bradlaugh was added to the list
of those indicted, on the ground that he was really the man
higher up in the case, and that of Whittle, the mere printer,
withdrawn. Bradlaugh was able to secure a separate trial for
himself, and, by establishing the claim that he was not the
publisher of the Freethinker on the date of May 28, was
acquitted. At the trial of Foote and Ramsey, the Lord Chief
Justice Coleridge, in summing up, liberally interpreted the law
of blasphemy, asserting, in effect, that an attack on even the
fundamentals of religion constituted blasphemy only if the
decencies of controversy were violated. When the jury returned
from its deliberations, it reported that it was unable to agree,
and before a scheduled new hearing took place the prosecutor
applied to the Attorney-General for a 'nolle prosequi.' This was
granted, and the case ended. Even before the above proceedings
were terminated, another prosecution was begun and carried to a
successful conclusion. In this instance "the City of London" took
action against Foote, Ramsey, and H.A. Kemp, respectively the
editor, publisher, and printer of the Freethinker, for publishing
"blasphemous libels" in the Christmas, 1882, number of the
Freethinker. Two trials were required for the disposal of the
case, as the original jury failed to reach an agreement. At the
second trial the jury pronounced the defendants guilty, and Mr.
Justice North, who presided at the trials and who manifested an
unsympathetic attitude towards the defendants, sentenced them to
imprisonment -- Foote for twelve, Ramsey for six, and Kemp for
three months. The Executive of the National Secular Society
sponsored a memorial to the Secretary of State for the Home
Department requesting a remission of the sentences imposed on the
convicted Secularists, but the memorial was rejected, and the
three men served out their sentences. ["National Reformer," July
16, 1882, to May 20, 1883, passim; Hypatia Bradlaugh Bonner,
"Penalties Upon Opinion" (2 ed., 1912), pp. 83-90; Annie Besant,
"Annie Besant" (1893), pp. 292-298; G.W. Foote, "The Blasphemy
Laws." "Freethinker." January 7, 1906; J,M. Robertson, "History
of Freethought in the 19th century" (1930), II, 430-433,]
The prosecution of Foote and his fellow defendants, and
especially the conviction and imprisonment of Foote, Ramsey, and
Kemp, tended to arouse the Secularists from their state of apathy
in regard to the blasphemy laws, so that in the remaining years
of the Bradlaugh period they carried on a somewhat more spirited
campaign against them. From time to time resolutions were passed
and petitions sent to Parliament. Mrs. Besant wrote articles on
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the subject. The National Secular Society, early in 1884, became
affiliated with the Association for the Repeal of the Blasphemy
Laws (of which the Honorary Secretary was the Rev. W. Sharmon),
while in May of the same year Bradlaugh, Dr. Aveling, and Foote
spoke at one of the great public meetings which the Association
held in St. James's Hall, London. In 1886, in 1887 (with
reservations), and in 1888, Secularist support was given to anti-
blasphemy-law bills which Courtney Kenny, M.P., sought in vain to
carry through Parliament. Finally, Bradlaugh, with the backing of
his Secularist followers, tried in Parliament, without success,
to have the blasphemy laws repealed through the enactment of his
Religious Prosecutions Abolition Bill (1889). ["National
Reformer," 1882-1890, passim; "Freethinker," 1882-1890, passim;
Joseph McCabe, "Life and Letters of George Jacob Holyoake"
(1908), 11, 145; Anne Besant, "Blasphemy" (1882); Annie Besant,
"Annie Besant" (1893), p. 288; Hypatia Bradlaugh Bonner, "Charles
Bradlaugh" (1894), Part Two (by J.M. Robertson), p. 405; Hypatia
Bradlaugh Bonner, "Penalties Upon Opinion" (2 ed., 1913), pp.
98-99.]
ANTI-CHURCH ACTIVITIES
In carrying on agitation which not only looked to the wide
acceptance of Secularism as a system of ethics, but which aimed
to promote its practical application through the achievement of
reforms in the political, social, and intellectual spheres of
society, the Secularists of the Bradlaugh period followed a
course of action pursued by the earlier Secularists. As was the
case, too, with the Secularists of the preceding era, there was
among the Secularists of the years from 1866 to 1890 an unceasing
effort to undermine the strength of the churches, indeed, the
Secularists of the Bradlaugh epoch engaged more generally in this
type of endeavor than did their predecessors. Whereas in the
earlier period a decreasing number of Secularists declined to
engage in this work, practically all Secularists participated in
it during the later era.
A discussion of some of the more typical of the combative
actions taken by the Secularists will be sufficient to
characterize the Secular campaign. One thing they did was to
place before the people biographical sketches of celebrated
Freethinkers, hoping to contribute to the undermining of
orthodoxy by showing that these persons -- and not the
theologians -- had been the true benefactors of mankind. Brief
sketches of Bruno, Campanella, Spinoza, Galileo, John Stuart
Mill, and other Rationalists appeared, and Joseph Mazzini
Wheeler, in 1889, brought out a Biographical Dictionary of
Freethinkers of All Ages and Nations. Wheeler's Dictionary
contained more than 1,600 names. [G.W. Foote and Charles Watts,
"Heroes and Martyrs of Freethought" (1875); J.M. Wheeler,
"Biographical Dictionary of Freethinkers of All Ages and Nations"
(1889). See also the following: Annie Besant, "Giordano Bruno"
(1877), and Arthur B. Moss "Bruno and Spinoza" (1885).]
The Secularists also attempted to discredit the Bible. In
order to show that, instead of being a divine revelation, it was
simply a man-made document, they challenged its consistency, its
science, its historical veracity, its morality, and its reputed
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authorship. Thus in an exhaustive treatment of the first 11
chapters of the first book of the Old Testament entitled
'Genesis: Its Authorship and Its Authenticity' (1882), Bradlaugh
attempted to show: "1. That the Book of Genesis is unhistoric,
that it is not the work of any one writer, but is made up of
several documents, belonging to different ages, pieced together
after the lapse of many centuries, often clumsily, and sometimes
without regard to relevancy. 2. That the narrative is sometimes
self-contradictory, and that it is often contradicted by other
books of the Bible. 3. That its chronological statements are, on
the face of them, absurdly inaccurate, and that they are
overwhelmingly contradicted by history and modern discovery. 4.
That the Genesaic teachings on ethnology, geology, astronomy,
zoology, and botany are flatly in opposition to the best
knowledge in each of these sciences. And, 5. That such teachings
of the book as relate to morality would be destructive of human
happiness, if generally adopted. [Charles Bradlaugh, "Genesis:
Its Authorship and Authenticity" (1982), Preface. See also:
"Freethinker's Text-Book" (1881?), Parts I and II; Charles Watts,
"Christian Evidences Criticized" (1870); G.W. Foote and W.P.
Ball, "The Bible Handbook for Freethinkers and Inquiring
Christians" (1888); Charles Watts, "Science and the Bible
Antagonistic" (1874): Joseph Symes, "Christianity at the bar of
Science" (1881); G.W. Foote, "The Creation Story" (1882); Charles
Watts, "The Bible and Christianity" (1876); and Charles Watts,
Value of the Bible" (1882).]
Another thing the Secularists did was to attempt to
undermine the belief that Christianity was divinely established
-- by showing it to be a natural growth. As Annie Besant
expressed the situation:
"Every one who has studied the subject knows perfectly
well that Christianity, both in its myths and its doctrines,
is an outcome of many Eastern creeds. To Judaism it
admittedly owes much, but Judaism was itself an offshoot of
a mightier and wider Eastern religion, and borrowed its
legends wholesale from Persia and from lands lying yet
further eastward, as well as from the hoary faith of its
Egyptian neighbors. The roots of Christianity strike deep
into Judea and Hindustan, into Persia and Egypt; from each
it has drawn much: from each it has taken something ...: and
when we seek for the creator of Christianity we find no
awful Divine form, breathing life into a figure created by
its will; but we see the fingers of mystic Hindu, and
dignified fire-worshiper, of barbarous Jew and subtle
Egyptian, all working at the growing creed, molding into new
shape the plastic clay of human superstition, fashioning a
Mary from an Isis and a Devaki, sculpturing a Jesus from a
Buddha, an Osiris, and a Krishna, and presenting renovated
for the adoration of the modern world the Gods worn out by
the old." [Annie Besant, "Roots of Christianity: or, the
Christian Religion Before Christ" (1886). See also Charles
Watts, "Christian Evidence, (criticized" (197?). and
"Freethinker's Text-Book," Part II.]
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The Secularists endeavored, too, to destroy confidence in
particular doctrines characteristic of Christianity -- such as
the doctrine of rewards and punishments after death and the
doctrine of the efficacy of prayer. The doctrine that prayers are
answered, for example, was attacked energetically by Foote, Mrs.
Besant, and others. Foote, in his Letter's to the Clergy (1890),
asserted that belief in prayer goes hand in hand with ignorance
of natural causes:
"There was a time when Christians prayed against an
eclipse -- because they did not understand its causes. ...
They still pray. ... against bad weather. ... When they do
understand its causes, they will cease praying against it,
and confine their supplications to what is still contingent.
... Contingency is nothing but ignorance. ... Where light
obtains, you find we have nothing to do but submit to ...
the necessity of nature."
And in the same treatise Foote went on to declare:
"Is Prayer answered? ... I look abroad in the world,
and find no practical recognition of the efficacy of Prayer.
No Life Assurance Company would calculate a sovereign's life
policy on the ground that her subjects asked God to 'grant
her in health and wealth long to live.' No Fire Insurance
Company would grant a policy on a House of Prayer unless a
lightning conductor were run up to prevent the Deity from
making a mistake in a thunderstorm. Underwriters never think
of asking whether the captain prays. ... When the Peculiar
People use prayer, without ... medicine, they are browbeaten
by Christian coroners and jurymen. ... Mr. Francis Gaiton
... keen scientific writer points out that in all the
medical literature of modern Europe he has been unable to
discover 'any instance in which a medical man of any repute
... attributed recovery to ... prayer. ... By the aid of
historical and statistical tables, Mr. Galton discovers no
trace of Prayer as an efficient cause. ... President
Garfield's life ebbed slowly away amid a nation's prayers
for his recovery. ..." [G. W. Foote, "Letters to the
Clergy" (1890); Annie Besant, "What Is the Use of Prayer?"
(1884); G.W. Foote, "The Futility of Prayer" (1879).]
Finally, a great deal of effort was exerted by the
Secularists in an attempt to show that the Church had been a
hindrance to civilization down through the centuries, They
declared that it long condoned the institution of slavery. They
asserted that it systematically encouraged belief in witchcraft
and took the lead in urging repressive measures against witches.
They affirmed that it had a cruel record as a persecuting
institution. They charged that it had impeded the growth of
science and general education. They averred that it had been
guilty of countless crimes, forgeries, and pious frauds. And they
contended that it had chronically stood out against social
reform. Mrs. Besant summed up the Secular indictment of the
historical role of the Church in these scornful words:
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"Thus Christianity set itself against all popular
advancement, against all civil and social progress, against
all improvement in the condition of the masses. It viewed
every change with distrust, it met every innovation with
opposition. ... Only as Christianity has grown feebler has
civilization strengthened, and progress has been made more
and more rapidly as a failing creed has lost the power to
oppose...." ["Freethinker's Text-Book" (1881?), pp.
423-476. See also the following: G.W. Foote, Christianity
and Progress" (1888)' Annie Besant, "The Fruits of
Christianity" (1878); Charles Watts, "Christianity: Its
Nature and Influence on Civilization" (1868); Joseph Symes,
"Christianity and Slavery" (1880); J.M. Robertson, "What Has
Christianity Done?" (187?); G.W. Foote and J.M. Wheeler,
"Crimes of Christianity" (188?); and Charles Bradlaugh,
"Humanity's Gain from Unbelief" (1889).]
THE ATTACK UPON SECULARISM
As was the case in the first era of Secularist history, so
now in the Bradlaugh period opposition to Secularism appeared in
the ranks of clerical and lay supporters of Christianity. Indeed,
throughout the greater part of the Bradlaugh era, a more
extensive anti-Secular campaign was waged than had been in
evidence during the earlier epoch of Secularist history -- no
doubt because in these Bradlaugh years the Secular Movement was a
stronger and more menacing force than it had been in its early
days. Sometimes the opposition took the form of nothing less than
rowdyism. At Deptford, Brighton, and other places Secularist
meetings were broken up by organized bands. When Annie Besant was
departing from Hoyland, after delivering a lecture there in 1876,
a crowd attempted to overturn her carriage. In 1867, at Mexbro, a
mob threw stones that shattered the windows of a hall in which
Charles Watts was lecturing, and at Congleton, in 1876, stones
were sent crashing through the windows of a hall in which a
meeting was being held by Bradlaugh. In 1875 Mrs. Besant was met
by stones at Darwen. On numerous occasions Secularist speakers
were assaulted, or jostled from their platforms, or greeted with
yells and hisses. [Annie Besant, "Annie Besant" (1893), pp.
199-201; Hypatia Bradlaugh Bonner, "Charles Bradlaugh" (1894),
passim; Gertrude Marvin Williams, "The Passionate Pilgrim"
(1931), p. 67; G.W. Foote, "Letters to the Clergy" (1890),
Preface, p. 4; Charles Watts, "Secular Progress in 1880."
"British Secular Almanac for 1881" (1880), p. 9; "National
Reformer," 1966-1890, passim; "Freethinker." 1881-1890, passim.]
Annoyance, misrepresentation, and abuse of Secularists
played their part in the opposition to Secularism. Bradlaugh was
frequently referred to as an extremely coarse and vulgar person,
or as a man of contemptible morals. On April 3, 1869, at Blyth,
he was refused food and shelter at the inns. And we have seen
that, though repeatedly elected to membership in the House of
Commons, he was for years prevented from taking his seat.
Scurrilous attacks were made upon Annie Besant, and she was
subjected to humiliating and painful experiences. Permission to
use the garden of the Royal Botanic Society in connection with
her studies was denied her on the ground that the daughters of
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the curator used it. Despite the fact that Thomas Huxley and
others signed a memorial to the contrary, she (with Bradlaugh's
daughter Alice) was refused admittance to the class in practical
botany at the University of London. Other Secularists, too, came
in for unpleasant treatment, and there were derogatory statements
directed against the Secularist body as a whole. [Mrs. Humpbrey
Ward, "The History of David Grieve" (ed. of 1892), pp. 104 105;
"National Reformer," (1866-1890), passim; Hypatia Bradlaugh
Bonner, "Charles Bradlaugh" (1894), passim; Chapman Cohen,
"Bradlaugh and Ingersoll" (1933), pp. 46-52; Annie Besant, "Annie
Besant" (1893), pp. 170-175.]
Legal action, as will be recalled, was utilized as a means
of combating Secularism in the Bradlaugh epoch. For one thing,
quite a number of Secularists, including virtually all those of
the top rank in ability and influence, were prosecuted. The first
person proceeded against was Bradlaugh himself. In 1868 he was
called into the courts by the Government for refusing, in
violation of the obsolescent Security Laws, to provide security
against blasphemous or seditious utterances in the National
Reformer. The efforts of the Government in this case were not
altogether successful, however, thanks to Bradlaugh's skillful
defense of himself, and eventually the prosecution was dropped.
Early in 1877 Charles Watts was prosecuted for publishing Dr.
Charles Knowlton's birth-control pamphlet. 'The Fruits of
Philosophy;' but as Watts, who pleaded guilty, declared his
ignorance of the contents of the book and disavowed any illegal
intentions in connection with the publication of it, he was
released under suspended judgment. Two months later "the
corporation of the City of London" prosecuted Bradlaugh and Mrs.
Besant for defiantly publishing their own edition of the Knowlton
pamphlet on the heels of the Watts case, and succeeded in having
them sentenced to six months' imprisonment, though the sentence
was later quashed on a legal technicality. In 1878, at the
instigation of the Society for the Suppression of vice, Edward
Truelove was tried, imprisoned for four months, and compelled to
pay a fine of 50 pounds for selling birth-control pamphlets --
'Moral Physiology', by Robert Dale Owen, and J.H. Palmer's
'Individual, Family, and National Poverty.' Legal steps were
taken against Bradlaugh in connection with the Bradlaugh
Parliamentary Struggle. After Bradlaugh had been permitted to
affirm and to take his seat at his legal peril (1880), he was
proceeded against in the courts so effectively that he was
temporarily unseated (1881). In 1882 Sir Henry Tyler, M.P.,
secured the prosecution of Foote and J.H. Ramsey on the charge of
publishing or causing to be published "blasphemous libels" in the
Freethinker: but the jury was unable to agree, and the case was
ended when the Attorney General granted a nolle prosequi at the
prosecutor's request. In 1882, also, "the City of London"
prosecuted Foote, Ramsey, and H.A. Kemp for publishing
"blasphemous libels" in the Freethinker, and did so with such
success that all three defendants suffered imprisonment -- Kemp
for three months. Ramsey for six months, and Foote for twelve
months. [The source materials for the above prosecutions are
listed in earlier foot-notes of this chapter -- in those
subjoined to previous discussions of the episodes in question.]
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Legal action against Secularism not only assumed the shape
of the prosecution of Secularists but took other forms. On the
ground that the Propagation of secularism was in violation of the
Blasphemy Laws, the courts, when appealed to, refused to permit
legacies to Secular bodies to pass into their hands. In 1869 an
arbitrator appointed to ascertain a special fact in a lawsuit
involving Bradlaugh in the Court of Common Pleas refused to allow
Bradlaugh to give evidence. Because she held and advocated
heretical opinions, the courts, in 1879, at the instance of her
former husband, the Rev. Frank Besant, deprived Annie Besant of
the custody of her child -- the daughter that had been awarded to
her at the time of her legal separation from her husband.
["Liberty of Bequest," "Freethinker,," December 17, 1893;
"National Reformer," December 12, 1869, to May 22, 1870, and
April 28, 1877, to April 20, 1879, Passim; A.S. Headingley,
"Biography of Charles Bradlaugh" (1880), pp. 119-123; Hypatia
Bradlaugh Bonner, "Charles Bradlaugh" (1894), I, 284-289; Charles
Bradlaugh, "Autobiography of Charles Bradlaugh" (1873), p. 21;
J.M. Robertson, "Charles Bradlaugh" (1920), pp. 21-22; Hypatia
Bradlaugh Bonner, "Penalties Upon Opinion" (2 ed., 1913), pp.
81-82; Annie Besant, "Annie Besant" (1893), pp. 113-220; Geoffrey
West, "The Life of Annie Besant" (1929), pp. 96-101.]
There were still other types of opposition to Secularism in
the Bradlaugh era. Many times the rental of halls was either
refused the Secularists or their use forbidden them (usually as a
result of pressure) after contracts had been signed. Discourses
against Secularism were also delivered from time to time. The
Christian Evidence Society, for example, sent out lecturers over
a period of years who labored energetically, sometimes even
appearing on the platform at the Secularist Hall of Science in
London. Attacks upon Secularism appeared, too, in the form of
publications. Opposition in periodical publications, such as the
'Eastern Post' and the 'Tissue,' usually took the form of hostile
reports of Secularist lectures, while systematic criticism of
Secularism appeared in such non-periodical treatises as
'Heterodox London: or Phases of Freethought in the Metropolis'
(1874). by Dr. Maurice Davies, a clergyman of the Church of
England. Finally, anti-Secularist opposition was expressed by
persons who debated with Secularists and by those earnest
individuals who replied from the audience to Secularist speakers.
["National Reformer," for the Bradlaugh era, passim;
"Freethinker." June, 1881, and November 20, 1892; Hypatia
Bradlaugh Bonner, "Charles Bradlaugh" (1894), I, passim; Charles
Bradlaugh, "Autobiography of Charles Bradlaugh" (1873), passim;
A.S. Headlingley, "Biography of Charles Bradlaugh (1880), pp.
99-100; Joseph McCabe, "Life and Letters of George Jacob
Holyoake" (1908), II, 60.]
The opposition to Secularism in the Bradlaugh era not only
fired the Secularists to greater exertion in behalf of their
program, but helped familiarize the public with the rising
Secularist ideas; and the net result of all this was that the
cause of Secularism was strengthened.
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ASSOCIATION WITH ORGANIZED INTERNATIONAL
FREETHOUGHT
British Secularism was not from first to last an isolated
and detached concern. In the course of the Bradlaugh epoch it
began to maintain a connection with international organized
Freethought. The opportunity for such affiliation came with the
formation, in 1880, of the International Federation of
Freethinkers which, organized on the initiative of the
Freethinkers of Belgium, held meetings from time to time, in such
urban centers as Amsterdam, Paris, London, and Brussels, for the
discussion of Freethought matters. British Secularism was
represented on the Council of the Federation, and delegates for
the British Secularists attended Federation meetings. In 1936 the
name International Federation of Freethinkers was changed to the
World Union of Freethinkers. Secularist affiliation with the
international body did not appreciably affect the aims,
practices, or fortunes of the British Secular Movement.
["National Reformer," passim; "Freethinker," passim; British
Secular Almanac for 1881" (1880), p. 10.]
CHAPTER IV
THE FOOTE-COHEN ERA
PROPORTIONS OF THE SECULAR MOVEMENT
Because of the conditions discussed early in these pages,
the British Secular Movement, from its beginning to the year
1885, was, on the whole, a growing enterprise. In 1865, the year
preceding the formation of the National Secular Society, there
were in existence about 25 local Secular societies. In 1885 there
were some four or five independent local bodies and 102 branches
of the National Secular Society. The total number of Secularists
in 1871 included slightly more than 1,000 members of the National
Secular Society plus a smaller number of persons attached to
local independent societies. In 1880 the total Secularist
enrollment embraced approximately 6,000 affiliates of the
National Secular Society together with a handful of other
persons. Though the total Secular membership in 1885 is not
precisely calculable, it was larger than in 1880 [It will be
observed that the above statements relative to the number of
Secularists refer to total enrollment, and not simply to the
number of individuals who had paid their dues. Estimates as to
paid-up membership would undoubtedly assume smaller proportions.
"Reasoner," 1851-1861, passim; "National Reformer,"
1861-1885, passim; "Freethinker," 1881-1885, passim; "Secular
Review and Secularist," passim; Hypatia Bradlaugh Bonner,
"Charles Bradlaugh" (1894), passim; Joseph McCabe, "Life and
Letters of George Jacob Holyoake" (1908), passim; "National
Secular Society's Almanack for 1886" (1885), pp. 16 and 47.]
The history of the Secular Movement from 1885 to 1946 was
marked by no such success. In fact, though there were times when
the Movement increased in numerical strength, the long-range
tendency was toward fewer Secular societies and a smaller number
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of Secularists. In 1890, the last year of the Bradlaugh epoch,
there were three or four local independent bodies and
approximately 62 branches of the National Secular Society. In
1946 some 32 branches of the national organization existed along
(possibly) with one independent society. Exact membership figures
for the period are not available, but it may be said the
Secularist leaders of these years did not claim unprecedented
numbers. ["Freethinker," 1885 ff., passim; "National Reformer,"
1885-1893, passim; "Secular Almanack," passim; H. Percy Ward, "To
the Secular Party," "Truth Seeker," April 1903; Joseph McCabe,
"Life and Letters of George Jacob Holyoake" (1908), 11, 261.]
By the end of the Bradlaugh period, then, the British
Secular Movement had already attained its largest proportions and
had entered upon a long period of lessened success. This adverse
development was connected with the mitigation of the harsh
circumstances which had oppressed the working classes and which
therefore inspired the Secular Movement. When the Secular
Movement began to languish, these unfavorable conditions had,
indeed, been extensively ameliorated. The political submergence
of the working classes, to begin with, was by no means so
complete as it once had been. It is true that the hereditary
element persisted in the government, and that woman suffrage had
not been introduced. Nevertheless, the Reform Act of 1867, which
granted the right of voting to the bulk of the male workers in
the cities, had been passed, as well as the Reform Act of 1884,
which admitted the mass of rural workmen to the suffrage; and, as
a consequence, the interests of the great masses of the people
could no longer be so readily flouted.
The economic and social condition of the working classes was
somewhat improved. While long hours of work, low wages,
unfavorable living conditions, and slight opportunity for
wholesome recreation were still the order of the day, and while
security against the hazards of unemployment, sickness, and
invalidity were still unprovided for, the situation of the
laboring masses, at least in the cities, was not so desperate as
it once had been. Wages were on the whole not quite so low, and
hours of work not quite so long. Then, too, recreational
opportunities were somewhat improved -- thanks to the
introduction of Sunday music in the parks and to the opening on
Sundays of various libraries, art galleries, and museums.
Educational facilities for the poor had undergone favorable
development. Though a nation-wide. system of government-
controlled schools providing in all cases Secular education did
not exist. the government had set up schools -- following the
Education Act of 1870 -- in localities where the private schools
were not providing educational training, and had authorized the
officials in these state schools to withhold religious
instruction from any child whose parent or guardian requested
that it be withheld.
Barriers and threats to intellectual freedom, too, were less
in evidence. Interference with the popular platform and press did
now and then take place. Equality before the law for every shade
of opinion, however, was less far from achievement than had
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earlier been the case. It is true that discriminations were still
the rule. The right of Freethinkers to affirm instead of taking
the oath, for instance, did not exist in all cases: it was not
operative in Scotland, and even in England it was not extended to
Members-elect of Parliament or to jurymen, nor was it permitted
in interlocutory proceedings. Then, too, the State Church
continued as before, and the blasphemy laws remained unrepealed.
Nevertheless, headway had been made through the passage of the
Evidence Amendment Acts (1869 and 1870), which granted to non-
religious persons the right of affirmation in courts of justice.
Finally, the Church was beginning to be somewhat less out of
harmony with working-class interests. Though most Churchmen
remained in large part occupied with other worldly affairs and
with supporting traditional upper-class interests, a somewhat
increased number were now active on behalf of improved conditions
for the masses. In the Church of England the Guild of St.
Matthew, which had been founded in 1877, and which manifested the
same interest in the welfare of the workers that had been shown
by Maurice and Kingsley, was encouraging dissatisfaction with
existing abuses. Indeed. the Rev. Stuart Headlam, who was the
foremost propagandist associated with the Guild. was as tireless
in his efforts to improve the welfare of the masses as any
Secularist. And in the free churches friends of such popular
causes as democracy, social reform, secular education, and Church
disestablishment were active.
The seduction of the evils which prompted the Secular
Movement naturally weakened the incentive to a campaign against
them; and when the stimulus to action had been sufficiently
undermined, the waning of the Secular Movement began.
ADMINISTRATIVE AFFAIRS
The event bringing to a close the Bradlaugh period and
marking the advent of a new epoch in Secularist history was the
resignation of Bradlaugh as President of the National Secular
Society. Bradlaugh resigned on the heels of a serious illness
which left him without the strength requisite for doing all that
he had been doing since the beginning of 1886, which, as will be
recalled, involved labors in Parliament as well as among the
Secularists. Even before sickness had overtaken him, however,
Bradlaugh had already intimated to the National Secular Society,
at its Annual Conference in the spring of 1889, that he expected
to retire from the presidency after one more year of service. It
is probable that Bradlaugh desired to expend the major portion of
his remaining energies within the precincts of Parliament, and
that action upon this desire was precipitated by illness.
Bradlaugh's resignation was offered (and regretfully accepted) on
February 16, 1890. ["National Reformer." October 27, 1889, to
February 23, 1890; "Freethinker," June 16 and November 17, 1889,
and December 30, 1906; Hypatia Bradlaugh Bonner, "Charles
Bradlaugh" (1894), Pt. One, II, 87 and 89-90, and Pt. Two (by
J.M. Robertson), 408-411.]
The proffer and acceptance of the resignation of Bradlaugh
took place at a special general meeting in London, of the members
of the National Secular Society which had been convoked by
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Bradlaugh, and at this same meeting G.W. Foote was elected by
acclamation as Bradlaugh's successor. ["Resignation of Mr.
Bradlaugh," "National Reformer," February 23, 1890; G.W. Foote.
"To the Members of the National Secular Society," "Freethinker,"
February 23, 1890.]
After a generation of militant service as President of the
National Secular Society, Foote died (October 17, 1915), and was
succeeded in office by Chapman Cohen, who, in November, 1946, was
still occupying the post. ["Freethinker," 1890-1946; "National
Reformer," 1890-1893.]
Since we are already well acquainted with Foote, it will be
necessary at this point only to make a few introductory
statements concerning Chapman Cohen. Though philosophically
inclined, Cohen is also interested in practical reform, and is
thus well suited by temperament to serve as Secularist leader. He
also possesses abilities useful to the head of a propagandist
organization, in that he is a cogent writer and speaker. And the
amount of labor he has devoted to the Secularist cause year after
year is nothing less than prodigious. In view of all this, it is
not surprising that his services as President of the National
Secular Society have evoked general satisfaction among his
colleagues.
Cohen was born of Jewish parentage on September 1, 1868, at
Leicester. His formal educational training was slight, but he
read persistently on his own initiative, particularly in the
field of philosophy. Largely through his philosophical studies,
he developed views compatible with Secularism, and in 1889 began
to lecture in the Secular Movement. Beginning in 1895, he was
elected each year as a Vice-President of the National Secular
Society. Early in his career as a Secularist he was recognized as
Foote's chief colleague, and his election to succeed Foote as
President of the National Secular Society came in fulfillment of
a general expectation. [Chapman Cohen, "Almost an Autobiography"
(1940), pp. 26-123; "Truth Seeker," March, 1895; "Cohen,
Chapman," "Biographical Dictionary of Modern Rationalists"
(1920), by Joseph McCabe; J.M. Robertson, "A History of
Freethought in the 19th Century" (1930), II, 590; "Freethinker,"
October 23, 1892, to April 23, 1936, passim.]
Inasmuch as the administrations of Foote and Cohen had much
in common, the history of the Secular Movement in the period
extending from 1890 to 1946 may conveniently be surveyed as a
unit; and since Foote and Cohen, each in his day, were the
outstanding leaders of the Movement, the period may fittingly be
designated as the Foote-Cohen era.
The doctrines and purposes of the Secularist Movement in the
Bradlaugh era, which themselves, either explicitly or by
implication, were essentially those of the earlier Secularist
epoch, continued, with slight variations, to be those which
underlay Secularist action throughout the Foote-Cohen epoch,
Though no complete enumeration of them appears in any single
document, a satisfactory description of their more general
features is contained in a statement entitled "Principles and
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Objects" which was issued in 1935, while a document "Immediate
Practical Objects of the National Secular Society" (1893)
contains an adequate account of their details.
The document bearing the title "Principles and Objects" runs
as follows:
"Secularism affirms that this life is the only one of
which we have knowledge, and that human effort should be
wholly directed towards its improvement; it asserts that
supernaturalism is based upon ignorance, and assails it as
the historic enemy of progress.
"Secularism affirms that progress is only possible on
the basis of equal freedom of speech and publication; it
affirms that liberty belongs of right to all and that the
free criticism of aLl ilcdit5D$ignation as Vice-President of
the National Secular Society occurring on February 26, 1890,
her last contribution to the National Reformer appearing in
the issue of April 8, 1891, and her final appearance on a
Secularist platform not taking place, despite a "farewell
speech" delivered to Secularists on August 30, 1891, until
1893. [Annie Besant, "Why I Became a Theosophist" (1889);
Annie Besant, "Annie Besant" (1893), pp. 202-203, 299-306,
306 ff., 314, 320-321, and 329-364; "National Reformer, "
1884-1893, passim; Hypatia Bradlaugh Bonner, "Charles
Bradlaugh" (1893), Pt. One, 1, 14-15, and Pt. Two (by J.M,
Robertson), pp. 63, 382-383, and 407; "Mrs. Besant on
Herself and Others," "Freethinker," January 25, 1891; "Sugar
Plums," "Freethinker," August 6, 1905; G.W. Foote, "The New
Year." "Freethinker," January 1, 1893; H.M. Hyndman,
"Further Reminiscences," (1912), p. 6.]
J.M. Robertson abandoned the Movement. He withdrew from the
Executive of the National Secular Society, in 1892, because of
displeasure over a decision made by the Executive as to the
disposition of funds contributed toward a memorial for Bradlaugh.
In May, 1893; after the fore-going action of the Executive was
approved by the Annual Conference of the National Secular
Society, he resigned his membership in the Society. He
disappeared entirely in October, 1893, when the National
Reformer, the editorship of which he had assumed, as will be
seen, upon Bradlaugh's death, failed. ["National Reformer,"
1891-1893, passim; "Freethinker," 1891-1905, passim.]
On January 22, when in his 89th year, Holyoake died.
Holyoake's Secularist activity, which was less extensive in the
Bradlaugh period than in the preceding era, had lessened still
more in the Foote-Cohen epoch, in fact, his services for many
years were definitely limited. There were intervals, indeed, when
he held himself almost entirely aloof from Secular circles. No
doubt all this was due to his disapproval of the extent to which
anti-Christian agitation was carried on by the bulk of the
secularist party, as well as to a critical attitude which he
often manifested towards his successors in the chieftainship of
the Secular Movement, and (latterly) to his advanced years. But
whatever the causes, his comparative inactivity was a fact.
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Nevertheless, throughout all this time he was identified with the
Movement, and even after the beginning of the Foote-Cohen era had
served for four years as a Vice-President of the National Secular
Society and for some two years (though no doubt merely nominally)
as President of the British Secular League. Now at last, however,
death withdrew him. ["Freethinker," July 24, 1892, to February
4, 1906, passim); "National Reformer," January 17, 1867, to June
4, 1893, passim; Joseph McCabe, "Life and Letters of George Jacob
Holyoake" (1908), I, 334, and II, passim; J.M. Robertson, "A
History of Freethought in the 19th Century" (1930), II, 440;
Hypitia Bradlaugh Bonner, "Charles Bradlaugh" (1894), I, 35.]
In 1891 occurred an event which gave promise of offsetting
to some degree the loss of the services of these well-known
persons. Charles Watts, who upon the failure of the British
Secular Union had accepted a Freethought "pastorate" in Canada,
returned to Great Britain and once more became affiliated with
the National Secular Society. ["National Reformer," 1866-1892,
passim; "Freethinker," 1890-1906, passim; F.J, Gould, "The
Pioneers of Johnson's Court" (1929), p. 6; William Kent, "London
Heretics" (1932), pp, 72-74,]
For several years Watts labored for the Secularist cause, as
a writer and speaker, and as a Vice-President of the National
Secular Society. But these efforts were destined to come to a
close sooner than might generally have been expected. In the
Freethinker for March 17, 1901, an unusual and interesting
advertisement made its appearance. It declared that George
Anderson (a Secularist) had invited Charles A. Watts (son of
Charles Watts and founder of the Rationalist Press Association),
in conjunction with a few trusted friends, to arrange for the
building of a Freethought Institute in London, to the cost and
endowment of which Anderson was to contribute 15,000 pounds after
the like sum had been contributed by others. The advertisement
went on to state the aim of the promoters was to establish a
comprehensive society embracing all sections of the Freethought
and ethical movements, and to request those in sympathy with the
project to communicate with Charles A. Watts. Although the scheme
discussed in the advertisement fell through, it led (among other
things) to the cessation of Watts' Secularist labors. Foote, who
declared he had not been consulted by the promoters, and who
resented the whole affair, charged Watts with being secretly
connected with the project and with aspiring to be the resident
lecturer of the Institute. Watts denied the charge, but the two
men grew increasingly embittered. Finally, in July, 1902, Watts
resigned his office of Vice-President of the National Secular
Society and the Executive of the National Secular Society (who
sided with Foote) countered by erasing Watts's name from the
rolls of the Society. Watts then became a lecturer for the
Rationalist Press Association. ["National Reformer," 1991-1893,
"Freethinker," 1894-1906, passim.]
It will be recalled, of course, that in 1915 G.W. Foote
died, and that more than half a century ago Chapman Cohen began
his long career of distinguished leadership in the Movement.
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PRINTED MATTER
Secularist efforts to assist in the propagation of
Secularism by means of publications of one sort or another were
continued in the Foote-Cohen era and met with a mixture of
success and failure. In the field of periodical publications, an
early development was the failure of the National Reformer. The
circulation of the Reformer had already begun to decline when, on
the death of Bradlaugh, J.M. Robertson assumed the editorship,
prepared in the main to follow the editorial policies so long
pursued by Bradlaugh himself. Inasmuch as under Robertson's
editorship subscriptions continued to fall off, there was no
choice but to bring the existence of the journal to an end. The
final issue of the paper was that of October 1, 1893. ["National
Reformer," February 22, 1891, to October 1, 1893, passim;
"Robertson, Rt. Hon. John MacKinnon," "Biographical Dictionary of
Modern Rationalists" (1920), by Joseph McCabe; "Robertson, Rt.
Hon. John MacKinnon," "Who's Who" (British), 1932; Joseph McCabe,
"Life and Letters of George Jacob Holyoake" (1908), II, 254.]
In 1894 the merchant, J.W. Gott, together with one John
Grange and a man named Wakefield, launched at Bradford a
Secularist journal called the Truth Seeker. Starting as a monthly
publication, the paper later was issued at irregular intervals.
The advocacy of Secularist principles and Freethought agitation
both appeared in its pages. The Truth Seeker was a regional
paper, serving primarily the district around Bradford. After a
few years the Truth Seeker went out of existence apparently in
1905. ["National Secular Society's Conference," "Freethinker,"
May 20, 1894; "Truth Seeker," 1894-1905; "Sugar Plums,"
"Freethinker," August 4, 1901.]
A Secularist local journal, the monthly Leicester Reasoner,
was started by F.J. Gould, Secretary of the Leicester Secular
Society, in March, 1902. With the issue of February, 1903,
however, this paper died. ["Sugar Plums," "Freethinker," March
10 and November 9, 1902, and January 4, 1903; "Leicester Secular
Society and Institute," "Freethinker," Nov. 23, 1902.]
As a possible means of reaching a wider public than was
reached by the militant Freethinker, Foote undertook the
publication of a Secularists monthly journal bearing an
"inoffensive" title and adopting a policy which was less
aggressive. The new periodical -- which was named the Pioneer --
was brought out on January 1, 1903. Though such "notorious"
Secularists as Foote and Cohen wrote for the paper, they used
pseudonyms, in an effort to attract readers that might otherwise
be frightened away. The new venture was not successful. The
readers of the Pioneer, in general, turned out to be persons who
were already reading the Freethinker. The paper did not make
converts for Secularism, and, besides, it failed to pay its way
financially. In less than 18 months after it made its initial
appearance, its existence was terminated. ["Sugar Plums,"
"Freethinker," November 23 and December 21, 1902; G.W. Foote,
"The Pioneer," "Freethinker," June 5, 1904.]
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Upon the death of Foote in 1915, the Freethinker passed into
the editorial hands of Mr. Chapman Cohen, who rededicated the
paper to the Secularist cause, and who conducted it year after
year with the same fearless aggressiveness as that practiced for
almost 35 years by his predecessor. In the autumn of 1946, though
the Freethinker had attained a longevity far exceeding that of
any other Secularist periodical, it still manifested the spirit
of youth. ["Freethinker," all numbers; Chapman Cohen, "Almost an
Autobiography," (.1940), pp. 118-135.]
As in former years, the Secularists of the era under
consideration were able to issue publications calculated to
propagate Secularist and anti-theological principles books and
pamphlets by Secularists and others. Conspicuous in the list were
such works as J.W. Draper's 'History of the Conflict Between
Science and Religion,' and biographies such as Joseph McCabe's
'George Jacob Holyoake,' J.M. Robertson's 'Charles Bradlaugh,'
C.T. Gorham's 'Robert Ingersoll,' J.M. Robertson's 'Voltaire,'
and Guy A. Aldred's 'Richard Carlile.' This propagandist work of
the Secularists suffered a blow in connection with the present
war. Many of the publications ready for distribution from the
headquarters of the National Secular Society in London were
destroyed, on May 10, 1941, by fire resulting from an enemy air
raid; and the production of new copies -- any new treatises --
was rendered difficult by the shortage of paper. ["Freethinker,"
1890-1946. passim; "Truth Seeker," passim; "Secular Almanack,"
passim; Executive of the National Secular Society, "General
Information for Freethinkers" (1921), p. 10.]
A succession of publishing -- or printing and publishing --
concerns in London served the Secularists of the Foote-Cohen
period. The Bradlaugh-Besant firm -- the Freethought Publishing
Company -- which had been founded in 1877, entered the new epoch,
but soon afterwards was dissolved. One cause of the dissolution
was, of course, the intellectual differences which had developed
between Bradlaugh and Annie Besant -- differences which carried
Mrs. Besant out of the Secularist Movement. Another factor in the
situation was Bradlaugh's declining health. A third reason for
the step was the fact that the expensive Fleet Street
establishment, even in those early days of waning Secularist
strength, was fast becoming an intolerable financial burden. The
dissolution took place in December, 1890. ["National Reformer,"
August 3 and December 21, 1890; Hypatia Bradlaugh Bonner,
"Charles Bradlaugh" (1893), Pt. One, II, 15, and Pt. Two (by J.M.
Robertson), pp. 47 and 48; Geoffrey West. "Life of Annie Besant"
(1929), pp. 106-109.] Robert Forder now became the Secularist
publisher -- at 28 Stonecutter Street; but in 1899 a Freethought
Publishing Company, Limited, was formed by Foote, and Forder
became (for a time) one of its Directors. At first the
Freethought Publishing Company, Limited, was located at 28
Stonecutter Street, but in April, 1900, No. 1 Stationer's Hall
Court became its address, and it moved to No. 2 Newcastle Street
in March, 1902. In July of the same year it added printing to its
activities. The Freethought Publishing Company, Limited, was not
successful financially, and in 1908 it was dissolved. Foote now
operated for Secularist purposes a personally owned concern --
The Pioneer Press, Located at the outset at 2 Newcastle Street,
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A HISTORY OF THE BRITISH SECULAR MOVEMENT
the Pioneer Press was moved, on March 25, 1915, to 61 Farrington
Street. Upon the death of Foote, in 1915, the Pioneer Press was
converted into a company -- G.W. Foote and Company, Limited --
with nearly the whole of the shares being held initially) by Mrs.
Foote. This concern -- often referred to as "The Pioneer Press
(G.W. Foote and Company, Limited) -- remained at 61 Farringdon
Street until the premises were destroyed by fire on May 10, 1941.
Soon after the fire a new location was found at 2 and 3 Furnival
Street, Holborn. In September, 1945, the address of the firm
became 41 Gray's Inn Road. ["National Reformer," August. 3,
1890; "Freethinker," 1890-1946, passim; "Secular Almanack,"
passim.]
PUBLIC OCCASIONS
The meetings which the Secularists held on Sundays in
Secular halls, the Secular outdoor meetings in the parks, the
debates between Secularists and non-Secularists, and the Secular
ceremonies utilized in connection with the naming of the children
of Secularists and with Secularist funerals continued in the
Foote-Cohen era to be prominent features of organized Secularism.
Both with respect to their character and the arrangements
attending them, these exercises followed along the lines
previously laid down. There were, however, certain new
developments in connection with them, and these should be
noticed.
As an addition to the song books already available for use
in connection with meetings arranged by the Secularists, one of
the most devoted and industrious of Secularists, Joseph Mazzini
Wheeler, compiled in the first decade of the era under
consideration a work entitled 'Freethought Readings and Secular
Songs.' The selections contained in the volume were expressive of
the Secularist ideal of devotion to individual and social well-
being, and included compositions by Algernon Charles Swinburne,
Giordano Bruno, Leigh Hunt, Omar Khayyam, Margaret Fuller,
William Shakespeare, Percy Bysshe Shelley, and many other
writers. [J.M. Wheeler, "Freethought Readings and Secular Songs"
(189?).]
A Secular song book was also compiled, at the request of
Sidney Gimson and F.J. Gould, of the Leicester Secular Society,
by Emily Josephine Troup. The volume was entitled 'Hymns of
Modern Thought,' and was published in 1900. It contained music
along with the words of the pieces: included in it, and gave
expression to the social aspiration associated with Secular
doctrine. [F.J. Gould, "Life-Story of a Humanist" (1922), p.
91.]
The lists of Secularists who at one time or another in the
new era were prominent in connection with Secularist meetings and
debates, as well as the list of non-Secularists who in the course
of the period enjoyed prominence in debate against the
Secularists, differed, of course, from earlier lists. Among the
outstanding Secularist lecturers in the new era were Foote, Mrs.
Thorton Smith, Touzeau Perris, Arthur B. Moss, J.M. Robertson,
Charles Watts, Holyoake, W. Heaford, Joseph Symes, Stanley Jones,
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A HISTORY OF THE BRITISH SECULAR MOVEMENT
Cohen, J.T. Lloyd, W.J. Ramsey, R.H. Rossetti, George Whitehead,
George Bedborough, J.T. Brighton, and J. Clayton. The list of
well-known Secularist debaters now embraced Foote, Charles Watts,
J.M. Robertson, W. Heaford, Cohen, Stanley Jones, and George
Whitehead. The better known of those who in this era opposed the
Secularists in debate included the Rev. S. Brennan, the Rev.
J.F.B. Finling, the Rev. F.W. Ford, the Rev. J.M. Logan, the Rev.
J. Moffatt, the Rev. C. Fleming Williams, the Rev. Daniel Macrae,
Dr. Alexander Jamieson, President of the Glasgow Protestant
Laymen's Association, the Rev. W.T. Lee, W.S. Clarke, of the
Christian Defense Association, the Rev. H.W. Dick, the Rev. A.J.
Waldron, the Rev. Arthur J. Dade, the Rev. B.J. Coles, Noah
Railey, of the Christian Evidence Society, the Rev. W. Hatch, the
Rev. R.H. Homer, G.R. Samsays, Editor of the Birmingham 'Weekly
Mercury,' Canon Storr, the Rev. W.H. Claxton, the Rev. D.
Richards, N. Barbanell, Vice-President of the Spiritualist
National Union, the Rev. D. Nixon, the Rev. J. Hogg, the Rev, D.
Richards, the Rev. J.H. Mowers, G.H. Hicks, General Secretary of
the New Church Evidence Society, and Capt. B. Acworth, of the
Evolution Protest Movement. ["National Reformer," 1890-1893,
passim; "Freethinker," 1890-1946.]
PROPAGATION OF SECULAR TEACHINGS
The Secularists of the Foote-Cohen period continued without
interruption the Secularist efforts of earlier eras to promote
the spread and application of Secular principles. A considerable
portion of their efforts was directed towards furthering the
acceptance of the broad doctrines making up the Secularist
ethical philosophy. Secularist lecturers endeavored to diffuse
among the masses of the people the conviction that the service of
man is man's moral duty; that such service can be achieved only
by natural means; and that it should be guided by the light of
secular knowledge. [See "Sunday Lecture Notice," "Sugar Plums,"
"Sunday Meetings" and "Mr. Foote's Engagement in "Freethinker,"
passim.]
Along with attempting to propagate the broad principles of
Secularism, the Secularists of the Foote-Cohen era gave attention
in their agitation to the less-basic portion of the Secular
program. It is true that one or two items in this section seem to
have been neglected. It is also true that certain Secularists,
later to be noticed, did not work in behalf of some of the
points. But with these exceptions, the Secularists labored
zealously in this sphere.
In the governmental sphere, they attempted, for one thing,
to secure the abolition of the monarchy and the establishment of
a republic. Secularist republican agitation, it is true, was
strictly limited in extent. Nevertheless, Foote and other
Secularists now and then lectured to this end. [Ibid.]
Scattered Secularist efforts were also made to secure the
abolition of the House of Lords. In 1894 the National Secular
Society became affiliated with the National League for the
Abolition of the House of Lords, while in the same year Foote and
a fellow Secularist, A.B. Moss, spoke at a great demonstration
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A HISTORY OF THE BRITISH SECULAR MOVEMENT
which the League held in Hyde Park. Besides this, a Secularist
lecture was from time to time directed against the House of
Lords, and in 1910 the Annual Conference of the National Secular
Society carried a resolution to the effect that any reform of "a
Second Chamber" that might be undertaken should call for the
abolition of the hereditary principle, as well as for the
abandonment of the practice of granting membership to bishops and
archbishops of the Church of England on the strength of their
ecclesiastical positions. ["National Secular Society,"
"Freethinker," February 22, 1894; "Sugar Plums," "Freethinker,"
August 26 and September 2, 1894; "Sunday Lecture Notices,"
"Freethinker," passim; "National Secular Society's Annual
Conference," "Freethinker," May 22, 1910.]
Universal suffrage, too, was demanded. Inasmuch as the
Reform Acts of 1867 and 1884 had brought about a situation in
which virtually all men enjoyed the right to vote, Secularist
interest in promoting the achievement of universal suffrage found
expression in the Foote-Cohen period only in connection with the
idea of votes for women; but in this sphere some action was in
evidence. There was passed, in 1913, by the Annual Conference of
the National Secular Society, a resolution in which the principle
of woman suffrage was endorsed. It will be observed that the
resolution was carried in the period preceding the close of the
First World War. Any agitation that might otherwise have been
undertaken after the war was rendered unnecessary by the
legislative enactments of 1918 and 1928, which granted suffrage
to women. ["National Secular Society's Annual Conference,"
"Freethinker," May 25, 1913; G.W. Foote, "Women and Freethought,"
"Freethinker," November 11, 1906; Joseph McCabe, "Life and
Letters of George Jacob Holyoake" (1908), II. 296.]
The Secularists of the Foote-Cohen period endeavored in
various ways to improve the lot of the masses. One part of this
work was an attempt to provide wholesome recreation for
Secularists and their friends. Many social functions were
arranged for this purpose, and these took quite a variety of
forms, including teas, dances, concerts, dinners, dramatic
entertainments, picnics, and excursions. ["Freethinker,"
1890-1946, passim; "National Reformer," 1890-1893, passim;
"Branches of the National Secular Society," "Secular, Almanack
for 1894" (1893), pp. 39-43; F.J. Gould, "Life Story of a
Humanist" (1923), pp. 85 and 88-89.]
The Secularists likewise maintained a "Benevolent Fund"
which, derived from contributions and from the proceeds of
entertainments, was utilized to alleviate the suffering of
Secularists in distress, Though the sums on hand were always
small, deserving applicants were given some assistance.
["Benevolent Fund," "To Correspondents," "Sugar Plums," "National
Secular Society," and "Sunday Meetings," "Freethinker," passim;
"Ball's Pond Secular Sick and Tontine Society," "Secular Almanack
for 1894" (1893), p. 44; "Branches of the National Secular
Society," "Secular Almanack for 1901" (1900), 27-29.]
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In the interest of mass welfare, too, Secularist action in
the Foote-Cohen era was undertaken to promote birth control. Much
of this took the form of arguments in favor of the practice. In
this connection the point was made, as in the two earlier Secular
periods, that contraception was a means of preventing poverty due
to overpopulation. In the early 90's J.M. Robertson wrote to this
effect for the National Reformer, while the Secularist George
Whitehead did so in a volume entitled 'Birth Control and Race
Culture,' which he published in 1925. The argument was also
advanced (and this was apparently a new approach for the
Secularists) that birth control was an avenue to better health.
This viewpoint appeared in a short-lived periodical, bearing the
title Birth Control, which the Secularist George Standring
published in 1919. Alongside of Secularist arguments in favor of
contraception, there appeared efforts by the Secularists to
identify governmental agencies with its promotion. These were
exemplified in a resolution passed by the Annual Conference of
the National Secular Society, in 1930, urging the establishment
of municipal birth-control clinics. [J.M. Robertson, "What Neo-
Malthusians Teach," "National Reformer," November 8, 1891; George
Whitehead, "Birth, Control and Race Culture" (1925); Norman E
Himes, Medical history of Contraception" (1936); "National
Secular Society, Report of the Annual Conference," "Freethinker,"
June 22, 1930; "Sunday Meetings," "Freethinker," passim;
"National Secular Society's Conference," "Freethinker," June 9,
1895.]
Paralleling these various forms of action were efforts which
the Secularists of the Foote-Cohen era exerted in connection with
education. The educational goal of the Secularists, as we have
seen, was a system of state schools providing Secular education
at public expense; and Secular educational labors were mainly
directed to this end. Some effort was spent, however, in the
operation, as a device for use pending the achievement of the
Secularist goal, of Secular schools in connection with Secularist
societies. The schools which the Secularists operated were open
on Sundays or in the evening of week days, and offered
instruction in both scientific and non-scientific subjects. The
number of Secularist schools dwindled as the period under
consideration advanced, and by the autumn of 1946 had become
inconsequential. ["Freethinker," 1890-1946, passim; "Guide to
the Lecture Room," "National Reformer," 1890-1893, passim;
"Branches of the National Secular Society," "Secular Almanack for
1894" (1893), pp. 39-43, and "Secular Almanack for 1901" (1900),
pp. 27-29; F.J. Gould, "life Story of a humanist" (1923), pp.
87-88.]
Secularist efforts in the interest of Secular education in
state schools took a variety of forms. Down to 1900, when local
school board elections were held for the last time, Secularist
and other school-board candidates pledged to advocate state
Secular schools were supported by Secularists, sometimes with
success. Secularist writings for the cause of a state system of
Secular schools made their appearance, notably in 1897 and 1902,
when manifestos were issued by the National Secular Society.
Demonstrations which supported Secular education by the state
were held by the National Secular Society (1902), or (1904 and
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A HISTORY OF THE BRITISH SECULAR MOVEMENT
1906) by the National Secular Society in collaboration with other
advanced bodies, such as the Trades Union Parliamentary Committee
and the Social Democratic Federation. The Executive of the
National Secular Society gave financial support to the Secular
Education League, which was founded in 1907, and which shared the
Secularist aim of secular schools maintained and controlled by
the state, while Foote and Cohen served on the Executive
Committee of the League. Lectures in support of state secular
education were delivered by Foote, Charles Watts, Cohen and
various other Secularists. Numerous resolutions in favor of
Secular education at the hands of the state were passed by Annual
Conferences of the National Secular Society. Secularist parents
now and then withdrew their children from religious instruction
in the state schools. ["Freethinker," 1890-1946, passim; "Guide
to the Lecture Room," "National Reformer," 1891-1893; F.J. Gould,
"Life Story of a Humanist" (1923), p. 92; "Obituary,"
"Freethinker," October 14, 1917.
For several months the Secularists cooperated with the Moral
Instruction League, which was formed at the end of 1897 "to
substitute systematic non-theological moral instruction for the
present religious teaching in all State schools." The Executive
of the National Secular Society donated funds to the League and
four members of the Secularist Executive -- Foote, Charles Watts,
Cohen, and S. Hartman -- served in its Executive Committee.
Secularist cooperation with the league came to a close in 1899,
after the League had endorsed the use of the Bible in State
schools as an instrument of moral instruction. "Sugar Plums,"
"Freethinker," July 11, 1897, to February 6, 1898, passim; Edith
M. Vance, "National Secular Society," "Freethinker," January 1,
1899; "National Secular Society's Conference," "Freethinker," May
28, 1899.]
@@@@
A prominent phase of the activity undertaken by the
Secularists of the Foote-Cohen era in the interest of reform in
various departments of society was the campaign which they
carried on for the removal of the obstacles that stood in the way
of free intellectual expression. As a part of this work they
sought to build up attitudes hostile to all such obstacles by
pointing out the need for intellectual liberty in general.
Various resolutions expressing concern over indications of an
intolerant spirit which were in evidence and urging support for
intellectual freedom were passed by Annual Conferences of the
National Secular Society. [Edith M. Vance, "National Secular
Society," "Freethinker," December 6, 1914, and December 9, 1917;
"National Secular Society's Annual Conference," "Freethinker,"
1914-1946, passim.]
Besides advocating freedom of the mind in general, the
Secularists opposed the violation of the principle of
intellectual liberty in various restricted spheres. For one
thing, they resisted interference with the press. On a number of
occasions when the freedom of the press was encroached upon they
sprang into action. In 1891, after a barrister-at-law, H.S.
Young, had been prosecuted for sending a birth-control tract in a
sealed envelope through the Post Office, and had been condemned
to pay a fine and costs amounting to more than 50 pounds, Foote
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Cooperated with Dr. C.R. Drysdale, President of the Malthusian
League, in the formation of a Free Discussion Defense Committee
which held public meetings of protest against the prosecution.
["Free Discussion Defense Committee," "Freethinker," November 29,
1991; "Sugar Plums," "Freethinker," November 29, 1891, to June
12, 1892, passim; "National Secular Society's Conference,"
"Freethinker," June 12, 1892.] In 1892 the Newcastle
Secularists, together with a few Spiritualists, raised funds for
the defense of one H. Loader, who was prosecuted for selling a
medical work on the population question, and held meetings to
protest against the prosecution and the sentence of a month's
imprisonment which the defendant received. ["Sugar Plums,"
"Freethinker," January 10 to February 14, 1992, passim; "National
Secular Society's Conference," "National Reformer," June 12,
1892.] In 1898 Foote, Holyoake, Charles Watts, and J.M.
Robertson cooperated with Bernard Shaw, H.M. Hyndman, and other
non-Secularists in a Free Press Defense Committee formed in
protest against the prosecution of George Bedborough, Secretary
of the Legitimation League, for circulating various works
published under the auspices of the League -- though the work of
the Committee was frustrated when Bedborough, through an
arrangement with the prosecution, escaped the risk of
imprisonment by pleading guilty. [Freethinker," January 12,
1898, to May 28, 1899, passim.] And two or three times since the
opening of the war which began in 1939, the National Secular
Society, through its Executive or its Annual Conference, has
passed resolutions protesting against the action of the
Government in suppressing newspapers and other periodicals
without a clear statement of the offense committed and without an
opportunity being given the proprietors involved of defending
themselves before a court of law. ["Freethinker," 1941-1946,
passim.]
The Secularists also endeavored to put an end to violations
of the principle of the equality before the law of all forms of
opinion. They attempted, for one thing, to bring to a close the
privileges and advantages bestowed by the state upon religious
interests. Their work in this direction involved first of all
efforts to secure the disestablishment of the State Church -- at
first in all parts of Great Britain and later (after the Welsh
Disestablishment Bill became law in 1914) in England and
Scotland. Resolutions in favor of disestablishment were passed by
some three or four Annual Conferences of the National Secular
Society. ["National Secular Society's Conference" (or equivalent
title), "Freethinker," June 14, 1903, June 14, 1914, and June 19,
1927.]
But the Secularists worked also to terminate various other
benefits which the church forces enjoyed at the hands of the
state. At Secularist Annual Conferences they passed resolutions
condemning the exemption of places of worship from taxation, the
use of religious ceremonials in connection with governmental
functions, the employment of chaplains by the state, the
compelling of soldiers and sailors to attend religious services,
the exemption of the clergy from military service, and the
broadcasting of sermons and religious services by the quasi-
public British Broadcasting Corporation. ["National Secular
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Society's Annual Conference" (or equivalent title),
"Freethinker," 1915-1946; Edith M. Vance, "National Secular
Society," "Freethinker," November 11, 1917; "Sugar Plums"
"Freethinker," December 1, 1918, and May 12, 1929; Executive of
the National Secular Society, "General Information for
Freethinkers" (1921), pp. 6-7.
Resolutions less thoroughgoing than those referred to above
in connection with religious broadcasting were also passed by
Secularist Annual Conferences. From time to time the British
Broadcasting Corporation was condemned for not providing
alternate programs at those times when religious exercises were
presented. Apparently these milder resolutions were passed as
offering greater promise of early fulfillment than the others.
"National Secular Society's Annual Conference" (or equivalent
title), "Freethinker" May 25, 1930, Jane 7, 1921, and May 20,
1937.]
In the interest of an equal status in the eyes of the law
for all varieties of opinion, efforts were likewise made by the
Secularists of the Foote-Cohen era to secure the repeal of the
blasphemy laws. Lectures were delivered, and in 1922 Cohen
brought out a pamphlet entitled 'Blasphemy: A Plea for Religious
Equality.' Then, too, Parliamentary candidates and Members of
Parliament were repeatedly urged to work for the cause, and when
bills calling for the repeal of the blasphemy laws were
introduced into Parliament, Secularist support was invariably
given to them. Besides all this, in 1922 the Secularists took the
initiative in the formation of the Society for the Abolition of
the Blasphemy Laws; and, after the organization was launched,
cooperated with it year after year, Cohen and other Secularists
serving on its Executive Committee. ["National Reformer,"
1891-1893, passim; "Freethinker," 1890-1946, passim; Chapman
Cohen, "Blasphemy: A Plea for Religious Equality" (1932)]
A further part of the Secularist effort in the Foote-Cohen
era to secure for all opinions an equal footing before the law
took the form of an attempt to bring about legislation which
would insure the payment of legacies to Secularist and other
Freethought bodies. It will be recalled that preceding the
establishment in 1898 of the Secular Society, Limited, bequests
of Secular societies had been withheld from them by the courts,
when appealed to, on the ground that their use by the Secularists
would constitute a violation of the blasphemy laws. The
Secularist agitation for the repeal of the blasphemy laws had
been designed in part to remedy this situation, but after long
years of effort success in getting the blasphemy laws repealed
still seemed remote; and in 1890 the Annual Conference of the
National Secular Society decided that action was desirable
looking to legislation specifically authorizing the payment of
Freethought bequests.
The Conference requested Bradlaugh, who was then a Member of
Parliament, to do what he could for the cause. Bradlaugh did
nothing, for one reason or another, but the matter was
nevertheless pushed. Holyoake formed a Liberty of Bequest
Committee which persuaded a Member of Parliament for Northampton,
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Mr. Manfield, to introduce a bill legalizing the payment of
Freethought bequests, and the National Secular Society gave the
measure its support. ["National Reformer," 1890-1893, passim;
"Sugar Plums," "Freethinker," September 28, 1890, and November
21, 1891; G.W. Foote, "Mr. Holyoake's Bill," "Freethinker,"
December 27, 1891; F.J. Gould, "Chats with Pioneers of Modern
Thought" (1898), p. 43; G.J. Holyoake, "Bygones Worth
Remembering" (1905), II, 199-204; Joseph McCabe, "Life and
Letters of George Jacob Holyoake" (1908), 11, 264-265 and 344.]
Secularist efforts to secure legislation which specifically
authorized the payment of bequests to Freethought bodies did not
long persist. The bill introduced by Manfield was blocked, and,
no further prospects of success appearing, the Liberty of Bequest
Committee before long vanished, while the National Secular
Society began once more to devote all its available energies to
the work of striving for the repeal of the blasphemy laws.
["National Secular Society's Conference," "Freethinker," May 20,
1894, and May 31, 1896; G.J. Holyoake, "Bygones Worth
Remembering" (1905), II, 199-204; Joseph McCabe, "Life and
Letters of George Jacob Holyoake" (1908), II, 264-265.]
We have seen in another connection that after the
establishment of the Secular Society, Limited, bequests intended
for Secularist use which were willed to the Secular Society,
Limited, regularly came into the possession of the Secularists,
and that an appeal to the courts to withhold such a bequest
resulted in failure (1917).
FIGHTING THE RELIGIOUS INTERESTS
Secularist efforts to advance the principles of Secularism
were only a part of the Secular activity in the Foote-Cohen era.
Energetic attempts were also made to undermine the strength and
influence of organized religion. Indeed, a, large portion of the
Secularist energies of the period went into this work; for not
only did the Secularists virtually all participate in it, but
some Secularists, fearing that the already diminished Secular
Movement would be further reduced by disagreements growing out of
a greatly diversified program, and arguing that practically all
Secularists could endorse anti-church agitation and intimately
connected endeavors, devoted all their energies to attacking the
churches and to the furtherance of those Secular teachings
(notably the doctrines of secular education and freedom of
thought) which were intimately bound up with the religious issue.
If the early Secularists devoted a proportionately large share of
their strength to the spread of the principles of Secularism at
the expense of anti-religious agitation, and the Secularists of
the Bradlaugh period expended relatively equal energies on the
propagation of the Secular principles and on campaigning against
the churches, the Secularists of the Foote-Cohen era devoted a
proportionately large share of their energies to anti-church (and
closely related) agitation. ["National Secular Society's
Conference" (or equivalent title), "National Reformer," May 27,
1888, and June 1, 1890; G.W. Foote, "Past, Present, and Future,"
"National Secular Society's Almanack for 1894" (1893), pp. 15-16;
F.J. Gould, "Chats with Pioneers of Modern Thought" (1898), p.
43; "Freethinker," 1890-1946, passim.
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Both Foote and Cohen sometimes wrote in favor of the
restriction of Secularist agitation to Freethought and closely
related matters, but neither thus consistently restricted his own
propagandist efforts. "Freethinker," 1890 and afterwards,
passim.]
In their anti-church campaign the Secularists of the Foote-
Cohen era attempted to discredit alike the teachings of
Christianity and the role of the Church in history. The arguments
which they used in the main resembled the Secularist arguments of
earlier epochs, and like them were based largely upon modern
thought and knowledge. They made their appearance in articles and
pamphlets and in lectures.
There was produced a sizeable collection of articles and
pamphlets. Foote brought out such hard-hitting publications as
'Is the Bible Inspired?' (1890) and 'The Book of God in the Light
of the Higher Criticism' (1897?). J.M. Wheeler published
'Paganism in Christian Festivals' (1895). The Secularist ex-
clergyman, J.T. Lloyd, came along with 'Prayer: Its Origin,
History, and Futility' (1916), and 'God-eating: A Study of
Christianity and Cannibalism' (1921). George Whitehead issued,
among other publications, 'Sex and Religion' (1930). Various
other Secularists also contributed pamphlets and articles, and
Cohen year after year put out forceful publications, typical
among which were 'Christianity and Social Ethics' (1910)), 'Women
and Christianity: the Subjection and Exploitation of a Sex'
(1919), and 'A Grammar of Freethought' (1921). [Numerous anti-
Christian pamphlets and articles of the period are listed in the
bibliography.]
Lectures against the churches were delivered in great
numbers. In the course of the period Foote, J.M. Robertson,
George Standring, Charles Watts, Cohen, Touzeau Parris, Stanley
Jones, Sam Standring, W. Heaford, A.B. Moss, W.J. Ramsey, Robert
Forder, H. Snell, H. Percy Ward, and many other Secularists
participated in this work. Representative of the titles of the
Secularist anti-church lectures are the following: "Pagan Origin
of Christianity," "Miracles of the Bible: Are They true?"
"Christianity and Civilization," "Credibility of the Gospels,"
"The Teachings of Jesus Opposed to True Morals," "Christian
Opposition to Science," "The Evolution of the Devil," "God's
Favorites," "The Bible Not Inspired," "God and Morality,"
"Buddha, Confucius, and Christ," "The Dishonesty of the Church,"
"Christianity the Enemy of Progress," "The Drawback of Theism,"
"Does God Answer Prayer?" "The Decay of Christianity,"
"Christism's Oppression of Women," "The Bible Fetish,"
"Christianity the Enemy of Medical Science," "The Christian God
an Impossibility," "Self-reliance versus Trust in God,"
"Freethought Martyrs," "The Trinity Puzzle," and "Religion the
Enemy of Man." ["Guide to the Lecture Room," "National
Reformer," 1890-1893, passim; "Sunday Meetings," "Mr. Foot's
Engagement" "Sunday Lecture Notices," and "Sugar Plums,"
"Freethinker," 1890-1946, passim.]
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THE CAMPAIGN AGAINST SECULARISM
Opposition to Secularism was in evidence among supporters of
Christianity in the Foote-Cohen era. This took the form partly of
a number of legal actions against minor Secularist agitators on
the ground of violation of the blasphemy laws. In 1911, 1913, and
1914 prison sentences totaling 10 months were meted out to Thomas
William Stuart for uttering "blasphemous" remarks while
lecturing. In 1912 Stephen Edward Bullock was sentenced to three
months' imprisonment for using "blasphemous" language at a
meeting. In 1911, 1917, and 1921 prison sentences aggregating 23
months and two weeks were imposed on J.W. Gott for publishing
"blasphemous" matter in pamphlet form. [Hypatia Bradlaugh
Bonner, "Penalties Upon Opinions" (2d ed., 1913), pp. 106-109;
"Freethinker," 1911-1921, passim.]
Anti-Secularist activity also found expression in rough and
noisy forms. Sometimes hooting, groaning, and jeering were
directed at Secular speakers. Various Secularist lecturers were
jostled off their platforms, and some were pelted with stones or
clods or rotten oranges. Now and then after a Secularist meeting
a howling crowd would follow the speaker to his bus or lodging.
["Sugar Plums," "Freethinker," 1890-1946, passim; "Bethnal Green
Branch of the National Secular Society," "National Reformer,"
September 27, 1891; "National Secular Society's Conference,"
"Freethinker," June 6, 1909; Chapman Cohen, Almost in
Autobiography" (1940), pp. 72-78.]
Light is thrown on a typical example of this sort of
opposition by the following account of what took place on
November 30, 1893, in connection with a lecture which Foote
attempted at Ryhope:
"When Mr. Foote entered the hall he was cheered by a part of
the audience, and hooted and groaned at by another part. Mr.
Weightman, of Sunderland, took the chair, and appealed for fair
play, but he might as well have expostulated with a hurricane.
The meeting was a perfect pandemonium. Mr. Foote ... for the best
part of an hour ... held his ground, speaking all the time and
getting a minute's hearing whenever possible.... Some discussion
followed the lecture, and every time Mr. Foote rose to reply the
disorder was renewed. Finally some wretch turned the gas (lights)
off, and threw the hall into darkness. It required some
discretion, and a free use of matches, for the lecturer and his
friends to get out of the building. Some of the bigots followed
him to the miner's cottage he went to for a few minutes before
walking to the station. Here they made diabolical noises, mingled
with cries of 'Pull him out.' But they did not seem to like the
idea of beginning that business, and eventually Mr. Foote walked
safely to the station with the little band of Sunderland friends
and two or three members of the new Ryhope Branch. ["Sugar
Plums," "Freethinker," December 10, 1893.]
Finally, there were occasional efforts to strike at
Secularism in debates, or through replies to Secularist lectures,
or by withholding halls from the Secularists. ["Freethinker"'
1890-1946, passim.]
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Opposition to Secularism in the Foote-Cohen era was less
pronounced than it had been in the two earlier periods of
Secularist history. Even before the close of the Bradlaugh epoch
anti-Secularist activity began to be noticeably less in evidence,
and as the Foote-Cohen period advanced it became so reduced that
it was no longer a major source of disturbance to the
Secularists. ["National Reformer," 1860-1893, passim;
"Reasoner," 1852-1861, passim; "Freethinker," 1881-1946, passim.]
In considerable part all this was due to a growth of the
spirit of religious tolerance in the period of the waning
opposition, and to the fact that the decline of the Secular
Movement which took place during these years caused it to be less
feared as a disturber of vested interests and cherished beliefs.
A factor of greater importance, however, was the progress of
Secularism. Not only did the Secular principle of the promotion
of human welfare upon earth become increasingly prominent among
Christians of the period, but many of the various lesser features
of the Secular program came to be more generally embraced by
them; and these developments naturally helped a great deal to
undermine the opposition to Secularism.
**** ****
CHAPTER V
SIGNIFICANCE
The British Secular movement was by no means out of harmony
with a significant section of British aspiration and sentiment.
As a matter of fact, the desires and aims of the Secularists
were, in their essentials, held in high esteem by many other
Britishers. If the Secularists desired to see advanced the
principle that the service of man by natural and enlightened
means constitutes the sum total of man's duty, others shared the
same desire. If the Secularists endeavored to achieve democracy,
they were not alone in their effort. If better conditions for the
masses were a Secularist object, so were they sought by many non-
Secularists. If the Secularists desired a state-controlled system
of schools affording Secular education, others shared their
desire. If greater intellectual freedom was a Secular tenet, so
was it an item of belief for many others. And if the Secularists
wished to discredit a reactionary church, others did, too.
Despite the essential harmony between the Secularist
aspirations and a great deal of British sentiment, the
proportions of the organized Secularist undertaking were never
really large. Even in the best years of the Movement the number
of its affiliates reached only a few thousand and the centers of
action associated with it did not greatly exceed 100; and
throughout most of the period of its existence the dimensions of
which it could boast were considerably smaller.
The main reasons why the Secular Movement never became
anything more than a comparatively small one appear to be the
following:
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1st. The Secularists scattered their efforts over too many
fields of endeavor. People generally preferred to identify
themselves with exclusively political, social, or intellectual
reform movements -- with specialized organizations, each of which
was devoted exclusively to the destruction of one of the many
evils fought by the Secularists. They felt that by so doing they
stood a better chance of success. The truth of this assertion is
suggested by the fact that numerous Secularists sooner or later
drifted away from the Secular Movement and became associated with
such undertakings, and by the no less eloquent fact that
proposals emanating from the Secularist body were in evidence
calling for the conversion of the Secular Movement into a
specialized endeavor -- ordinarily into a solely Freethought
enterprise -- on the ground that such a reconstruction would be
conducive to greater effectiveness.
2nd. The approach of the Secularists to the problem of
bettering the economic and social lot of the working classes was
too restricted. It is true, of course, that the Secularists
worked hard to improve the condition of the workers, as is shown
by their birth-control agitation, their land-reform activities,
their benevolent fund, and their furtherance of popular
recreation. But they tended to rely either on self-help devices
of one sort or another or on the removal of governmental
obstructions to self-help, and to show little appreciation of the
possibilities of social reform by means of positive state action.
It is no doubt true that in preaching the gospel of the
betterment of the masses the Secularists really helped promote
state-directed reform. It is also true that some Secularists
advocated this type of remedy. But the Secularist body as such
did not include this variety of social reform in its official
program. The period since the advent of the Secular Movement,
however, has been one which has aimed at social reform by
collectivist as well as individualist means. In fact, the demand
for positive social legislation has in recent decades been much
in the foreground. And persons who, though sharing the Secularist
zeal for social reform, were enamored of the collectivist variety
of reform, or who felt that both types were needed, refrained in
many cases from affiliating themselves with the Secularist body.
3rd. Secularists were apt to suffer petty persecution.
Intolerant Christians sometimes discriminated against them,
abused them in one way or another, or even ostracized them. It is
true that such unpleasant treatment sometimes strengthened the
Secular Movement, but such was not usually the case; for if there
were persons who accepted it as a challenge, there were many more
who shrank from it. The following type of observation is a
recurring one in Secularist literature:
"We well know that, in various parts of England, also
in Scotland, there are large numbers who would openly join
the Secular body, but who, at present, hesitate and hold
back, because they have become cognizant of painful
instances in which the honest avowal of sentiment resulted
in loss of situation, or profit, or friends. ["Secularist
Propaganda." "National Reformer," January 4, 1862. See also
"Reasoner," November 17, 1852.]
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4th. The atmosphere of the Secularist camp smacked too much
of religion. Though the Secularists spent a great deal of energy
attacking religion, in many ways they resembled a religious
group. They had not only a moral code, but one which was similar
to parts of the code associated with Christianity. They talked
theology, just as the religionists did, though, of course, for a
different purpose. They had their Sunday lectures, which were not
altogether unlike sermons. They utilized ceremonies reminiscent
of sacraments. They even sang hymns. Nor was this all. Joseph
Barker, Joseph Symes Joseph McCabe (who for one year was
Secretary for the Leicester Secular Society), and John T. Lloyd
were former clergymen. H. Percy Ward had studied for the
ministry. Annie Besant was the one-time wife of a clergyman. And
John Watts, Charles Watts, and Dr. Aveling were the sons of
clergymen. Thus, as a result of training or temperament, the
Secularist leaders were often not so far removed psychologically
from the clergy. But the resemblance of the Secular Movement to
an organized religion was hardly an asset to it. The period
covered by the Secular Movement has been one in which
indifference to religion has become increasingly evident; and
persons who had ceased to be interested in clergymen and church
services were not always attracted by their Secularist
counterparts.
But if the Secular Movement itself was always relatively
small, the influence which it exerted -- thanks to the talent and
industry of the Secularist leaders and to faithful support of the
leaders by the rank and file -- was by no means negligible.
The changes involved in the Secularist influence were not
due altogether to the Secularists, but were brought about partly
by the non-Secularists already mentioned as sharing the
Secularist aims. In view of this fact, we shall find it
convenient, in discussing the Secularist influence, to mention
the various achievements which were brought about through the
total effort of the Secularists and the other like-minded
reformers, and then to assess the importance which the Secularist
action had in their accomplishment.
Of the several developments which the Secularists helped to
bring about, one of the most conspicuous was the growth of the
idea that it is man's duty to promote human welfare on earth.
This idea became so widespread as to be almost universally
endorsed, and belief in it became so firmly established that its
truth was generally taken for granted. Action in accordance with
the principle, of course, was less general, and perhaps was
relatively rare. But the belief itself all but triumphed. It was
so firmly established that persons generally endeavored to
justify their actions by it, and so widely held that individuals
or groups with programs to advance ordinarily sought support for
them by identifying them with it.
Another development had to do with democracy. Great progress
was made in the achievement of democratic government. Not only
were voting privileges secured for the great masses of men and
women alike (through the Reform Acts of 1867, 1884, 1918, and
1928), but the powers of the undemocratic House of Lords were so
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greatly reduced (in 1911 by the Parliament Act) that it was no
longer able permanently to obstruct legislation enacted by the
popularly-elected House of Commons.
The economic and social conditions surrounding the laboring
masses were definitely improved. Thanks at once to the widespread
adoption of the practice of limiting the size of families through
birth control and to much corrective legislation affecting
working conditions, hours of labor, and even wages, poverty and
hardship were somewhat reduced. Insecurity, too, was made less
general, through the enactment by Parliament of social-insurance
legislation relating to unemployment, accident, sickness, and
invalidity, as well as by means of voluntary associational
schemes. And recreational facilities were extended through the
provision on Sundays, during the summer months, of music in the
parks, and through the opening on Sunday of museums, libraries,
art galleries, and other recreational centers.
Educational progress, too, was achieved. As a result of the
Education Act of 1370, many state schools were set up alongside
of the insufficiently-numerous private schools; and in these
state schools a strictly Secular education was made available to
any child whose parent or guardian requested that religious
instruction be withheld from him.
Intellectual freedom was broadened. In 1853, 1855, and 1861
respectively, the restrictive taxes on paper, advertisements, and
newspapers were removed. The legislation demanding the provision
of security against blasphemous or seditious utterances in
newspapers was abolished (1869). Through the Evidence Further
Amendment Act (1869), the Evidence Amendment Act (1870), and the
Oaths Act (1888) the right of non-religious persons to affirm
under all conditions in lieu of taking an oath was gained. And,
thanks to more liberal judicial interpretation, the blasphemy
laws came to be applied in less-oppressive ways -- as is Shown at
once by the triumph of the tendency to restrict blasphemy to the
criticism of religion in unseemly fashion, and by the
discontinuance of the practice of denying bequests to Freethought
bodies on the ground that such bodies violated the blasphemy
laws.
Finally, various religious changes were brought about. The
church was both weakened and changed. Two important factors
weakened the church. In the first place, it was weakened by the
curtailment of its role in the political, educational, and social
spheres. The political authority of the church was reduced when
the Parliament Act, in curtailing the authority of the House of
Lords, restricted that of the ecclesiastical dignitaries who sat
in that body. The educational function of the church was
relatively lessened when the state undertook to supplement the
religious schools with schools of its own. And the social
functions of the church were proportionately reduced when
extensive action for the alleviation of poverty and distress
began to be taken by the state.
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The church was also weakened by the increase of religious
skepticism. An impressive number of persons, especially among
university professors, members of the learned professions,
writers, shopkeepers. and city workers, ceased at once to endorse
the major tenets associated with organized Christianity and to
retain confidence in its fruits. This unbelief weakened the
church, not only because skeptics tended to withdraw their
membership and support from the religious bodies, but because
(though many became indifferent) they sometimes waged campaigns
against religion.
The church was changed through the restatement of Christian
doctrines and through a modification of Christian action. As for
the restatement of doctrines, it is true that nothing was done
officially; but increasingly numerous individual church members
adopted a revised creed. They changed the traditional doctrines
in such a way as to enable them to stand the test of modern
thought and knowledge. What this amounted to, in broad terms, was
that they emerged with a creed which was essentially earth-
centered and humanitarian -- one which envisaged religion, not as
a device for securing happiness in a world to come, or as an
instrument for holding the lower orders in cheek, but as a means
of reducing the many evils suffered by the masses of mankind in
the present life, and, in general, of promoting human happiness
here in the world.
Christian action came to be concerned more extensively with
the reform of conditions adversely affecting the lower classes.
The churches did not become primarily centers of reform, but
became such to an increasing degree. The lead in this direction
was taken by individuals and groups rather than by the churches
as organized bodies, but official action by the churches directly
was not altogether lacking. All in all, considerable effort was
put forth. Chief attention was paid to the improvement of the
social and economic condition of the workers. The Guild of St.
Matthew, the Christian Social Union, the Church Socialist League,
and other organizations, as well as numerous individuals, were
devoted primarily to this work. But other types of reform had
their Christian supporters. Thus there were advocates of
democracy, of Secular education, and of unrestricted intellectual
freedom. Perhaps the entire situation with respect to the
enlargement of Christian action in the interest of popular reform
is roughly characterized by Donald O. Wagner's summarizing
statement (1930) concerning the expansion of social-reform
activity in the Church of England since 1854. "Seventy-five years
ago," says Mr. Wagner, "bishops would have now been thought the
last possible converts to social reform. Many of them are far in
advance of their flocks and a few are nothing less than
agitators." [Donald O. Wagner, "The Church of England and Social
Reform Since 1854" (1930), p. 326.]
Although the contributions which the Secularists made to
these several achievements cannot, of course, be measured with
any degree of precision, their size may be roughly approximated,
To the advancement of the idea that it is the duty of man to
promote man's well-being in this life they contributed much --
thanks to their prolonged and energetic campaign to that end.
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A HISTORY OF THE BRITISH SECULAR MOVEMENT
In the securing of the Parliamentary enactments involving
the furtherance of democracy, the Secularists played a part which
was important. They helped to augment the demand which brought
them about.
The Secularist contribution to the improvement of conditions
among the workers was significant. For one thing, they aided
perceptibly in the alleviation of poverty. Not only did they
render much help in preparing the ground for remedial measures
through bringing the problem of poverty before the public eye,
but by furthering the limitation of the size of families among
the working elements in the population, they helped a great deal
to reduce the unemployment arising from the presence of a greater
number of workers than the employing classes needed. They also
contributed noticeably to the promotion of greater security for
the workers, mainly through publicizing working-class insecurity,
and to some slight degree by means of the Secular Benevolent
Fund. Finally, they played a considerable part in the procuring
of Sunday music in the parks, and in the opening of libraries,
art galleries, and museums on Sunday.
The progress which was made in education owed a debt of
considerable proportions to the Secularists. The long years of
Secularist educational agitation helped much to ripen opinion for
the state-controlled schools which were set up, while the
operation of Secular schools by the Secularists and the
withdrawal of the children of Secularists from religious
instruction in the state-controlled schools furthered to some
slight degree the cause of secular education.
The efforts of the Secularists counted for a great deal in
the broadening of intellectual freedom. To the campaign which
secured the repeal of the taxes on paper, advertisements, and
newspapers they contributed much financial and other aid.
Secularist defiance of the Security Laws was a major factor in
the securing of their repeal. The fight for the extension of the
right of affirmation was in large part won by the Secularists, as
is indicated by the fact that the Evidence Further Amendment Act,
the Evidence Amendment Act, and the Oaths Act were all passed in
direct response to Secularist action. And Secularist action with
respect to the blasphemy laws was to some degree effective. By
persistently talking and writing against these oppressive
measures, by violating them on innumerable occasions, and by
making systematic efforts to prevent their enforcement, the
Secularists did much to further the tendency towards a less harsh
interpretation of them -- the tendency to conceive of them as
applying, not to all critics of Christianity, but only to those
who in their criticism departed from the standards of good taste.
The religious changes which were brought about were in
considerable part the result of Secularist labors. On the one
hand, the Secularists aided considerably the weakening of the
church. By helping to reduce the powers of the House of Lords
with its archbishops and bishop, by assisting in the
establishment of state schools at the expense of a completely
church-school system, and by furthering the improvement of the
condition of the lower classes by secular rather than by
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A HISTORY OF THE BRITISH SECULAR MOVEMENT
religious means, they contributed significantly to the reduction
of the political, educational, and social role of the church. And
by carrying on a long and unbroken anti-religious campaign they
promoted to a large extent the growth of religious skepticism.
On the other hand, the Secularists contributed a great deal
to the changing of organized Christianity. By exposing the
intellectual and social dereliction of the church, by luring away
many of its members, and by setting it an example of popular-
reform activity, they furthered extensively both the
modernization of Christian doctrine and the socialization of
Christian action. "We Christians," said the Rev. Stewart D.
Headlam, "owe much to the National Secular Society; it has helped
us to overthrow many idols and to sweep away much rubbish.
["Sugar Plums," "Freethinker," January 11, 1891.]
In a word, though the Secular Movement was not an especially
large one, it helped much to advance the causes of democracy,
social reform, education, secularism, mental freedom, and
socialized morality. It contributed appreciably to the creation
of some of the, most characteristic features of present-day
British society.
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A HISTORY OF THE BRITISH SECULAR MOVEMENT
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A HISTORY OF THE BRITISH SECULAR MOVEMENT
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Afghanistan; or, Why the Tory government gags the Indian press. A
plea for the weak against strong., (1879)
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Besant, Annie, The English Land System. (1882)
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delivered in the Hall of Science during October, 1881 (1881)
besant, Annie, The Fruits of Christianity. (1878)
Besant, Annie, Giordano Bruno. (1877)
Besant, Annie, God's views on marriage as Revealed in the Old
Testament. (1881?)
Besant, Annie, Gordon Judged out of his own Mouth. (1885).
Besant, Annie, The Gospel of Atheism: a Lecture. (1877)
Besant, Annie, The Gospel of Christianity and the Gospel of
Freethought. (1877)
Besant, Annie, Henry Varley Exposed. (1881)
Besant, Annie, History of the Anti-Corn-Law Struggle. (1881)
Besant, Annie, History of the Great French Revolution. (1876)
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A HISTORY OF THE BRITISH SECULAR MOVEMENT
Besant, Annie, Is the Bible Indictable? ... Being an Enquiry
whether the Bible comes within the ruling of the Lord Chief
Justice as to obscene literature (1877)
Besant, Annie, Is Christianity a Success? (1885)
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by Annie Besant
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Besant, Annie, The Law of Population. Its consequence and its
bearing upon human conduct and morals (1877)
Besant, Annie, Legalization of Female Slavery in England. (1885)
Besant, Annie, Liberty, Equality, Fraternity. (188?)
Besant, Annie, Life, Death, and Immortality. (1886)
Besaint, Annie, Light, Heat, and Sound. (1881)
Besant, Annie, Marriage; as it was, as it is, and as it should
be.
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Translated... by Annie Besant (1880)
Besant, Annie, My Path to Atheism. (1877)
Besant, Annie, The Myth of the Resurrection. (1884)
Besant, Annie, The Natural History of the Christian Devil. (1885)
Besant, Annie, Natural Religion versus Revealed Religion. (187?)
Besant, Annie, On the Atonement. (1874)
Besant, Annie, On the Deity of Jesus of Nazareth ... (1873)
Besant, Annie, On Eternal Torture. (1874)
Besant, Annie, On Inspiration. (1874)
Besant, Annie, On the Mediation and Salvation of Ecclesiastical
Christianity. (1875)
Besant, Annie, On the Nature and Existence of God. (1875)
Besant, Annie, On the Religious Education of Children. (187?)
Besant, Annie, The Physiology of Home. (1881)
Besant, Annie, The Political Status of Women. (1885)
Besant, Annie, The Religion of Israel, by J. Soury. Translated by
Annie Besant. (1880).
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A HISTORY OF THE BRITISH SECULAR MOVEMENT
Besant, Annie, "Reply to Gladstone's 'True and False Conceptions
of the Atonement'", Nineteenth Century, June, 1895
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Besant, Annie, The True Basis of Morality. (1874)
Besant, Annie, Vivisection. (1881)
Besant, Annie, What Is the Use of Prayer? (1884)
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(1880)
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A HISTORY OF THE BRITISH SECULAR MOVEMENT
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Robertson, M. P. (1894)
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the Laws of Heresy and Blasphemy ... (1913)
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A HISTORY OF THE BRITISH SECULAR MOVEMENT
Bonner, Mrs. H.B., The Slave Struggle in America.
Bonner, Mrs. H.B., Stricken India.
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Bradlaugh, Alice, Mind Considered As A Bodily Function. (1884)
Bradlaugh Centenary Committee, Editors, Champion of Liberty:
Charles Bradlaugh (1933)
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Celebration ... 1933 (1933)
Bradlaugh, Charles, American Cities.
Bradlaugh, Charles, Anthropology of Mr. Bradlaugh. A Page of His
Life (1873)
Bradlaugh, Charles, The Atonement. (1860)
Bradlaugh, Charles, The Autobiography of Mr. C. Bradlaugh. (1873)
Bradlaugh, Charles, The Bible Not Reliable. (1858)
Bradlaugh, Charles, The Bible; What it is: Being an examination
there-of from Genesis to Revelation (1857-1861)
Bradlaugh, Charles, Broadsides, Ballads, etc., Collection of,
issued in connection with Northampton election ... (1874)
Bradlaugh, Charles, Capital and Labour. (1886)
Bradlaugh, Charles, A Cardinal's Broken Oath. (1882)
Bradlaugh, Charles, The Channel Tunnel: ought the democracy to
oppose or support it? (1877)
Bradlaugh, Charles, The Civil List and Grants to Royal Family.
(1882)
Bradlaugh, Charles, Compulsory Cultivation of Land: What it means
and why it ought to be enforced (1887)
Bradlaugh, Charles, Cromwell and Washington. (1877)
Bradlaugh, Charles, Does the Bible contain a Perfect Code of
Morality, (1860 or earlier)
Bradlaugh, Charles, Doubts in Dialogue. (1891)
Bradlaugh, Charles, The Eight Hours' Movement ... (1889)
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A HISTORY OF THE BRITISH SECULAR MOVEMENT
Bradlaugh, Charles, The Eight Hours' Question.
Bradlaugh, Charles, England's Balance Sheet. (1884)
Bradlaugh, Charles, A few Words about the Devil, and other
biographical sketches and essays (1864 or earlier)
Bradlaugh, Charles, Five Dead Men Whom I Knew when Living; R.
Owen, J. Mazzini, C. Sumner, J.S. Mill, and Ledru Rollin (1877)
Bradlaugh, Charles, Genesis, its Authorship and Authenticity
(1882)
Bradlaugh, Charles, George, Prince of Wales, with recent
contrasts and coincidences. (18??)
Bradlaugh, Charles, Has Man a Soul? (1859)
Bradlaugh, Charles, Heresy: its utility and morality. (1868)
Bradlaugh, Charles, Hints to emigrants to the United States of
America. (1879)
Bradlaugh, Charles, How are We to Abolish the Lords? (1884)
Bradlaugh, Charles, Humanity's Gain from Unbelief, and other
selections from works of Charles Bradlaugh, with Prefatory note
by his daughter, H.B. Bonner (1929)
Bradlaugh, Charles, Impeachment of the House of Brunswick. (1872)
Bradlaugh, Charles, Indian Money Matters. (1889)
Bradlaugh, Charles, The Inspiration of the Bible. (1873)
Bradlaugh, Charles, The Irish Question. (1868)
Bradlaugh, Charles, Is there a God? (1860)
Bradlaugh, Charles, Jesus, Shelley, and Malthits. (1861)
Bradlaugh, Charles, John Churchill, Duke of Marlborough. (1884)
BradlaUgh, Charles, Labour and Law. (1891)
Bradlaugh, Charles, Labor's Prayer. (1865)
Bradlaugh, Charles, The Land Question. (1870)
Bradlaugh, Charles, The Land, the People, and the Coming Struggle
(1871)
Bradlaugh, Charles, The Laws Relating to Blasphemy and heresy.
(1878)
Bradlaugh, Charles, A Letter from a Freemason, to General H.R.H.
Albert Edward, Prince of Wales. (1867)
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A HISTORY OF THE BRITISH SECULAR MOVEMENT
Bradlaugh, Charles, Letter to Dr. Brindley. (1860)
Bradlaugh, Charles, Life of Abraham.
Bradlaugh, Charles, Life of David.
Bradlaugh, Charles, Life of Jacob.
Bradlaugh, Charles, Life of Jonah.
Bradlaugh, Charles, Life of Moses.
Bradlaugh, Charles, London Republican Club. The inaugural address
of the President, Mr. C. Bradlaugh. (1871)
Bradlaugh, Charles, Lying for the Glory of God: a Letter to the
Rev. Canon Fergie, D.D., Vicar of Ince, near Wigan. (1887)
Bradlaugh, Charles, Market Rights and Tolls Restrictive of Trade.
(1887)
Bradlaugh, Charles, New Life of Abraham. (1860)
Bradlaugh, Charles, New Life of David., (1860)
Bradlaugh, Charles, New Life of Jacob. (1861)
Bradlaugh, Charles, New Life of Jonah. (1861 or earlier)
Bradlaugh, Charles, New Life of Moses. (1861)
Bradlaugh, Charles, Northampton's Voice on the Royal Grants.
(1887)
Bradlaugh, Charles, Notes on Genesis. (1861 or earlier)
Bradlaugh, Charles, Notes on Joshua, Judges, and Samuel. (1861 or
earlier)
Bradlaugh, Charles, Parliament and the Poor.
Bradlaugh, Charles, Perpetual Pensions. (1880)
Bradlaugh, Charles, A Plea for Atheism. (1864)
Bradlaugh, Charles, Political Essays. (Vol. I, 1864, Vol. II,
1865).
Bradlaugh, Charles, Political Essays.
Bradlaugh, Charles, Poverty: its effects on the Political
condition of the people. (1863)
Bradlaugh, Charles, Prohibition of Free Speech. (1861)
Bradlaugh, Charles, The Radical Program. (1885.)
Bradlaugh, Charles, Real Representation of the People. (1863)
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Bradlaugh, Charles, Reform or Revolution. (1867)
Bradlaugh, Charles, "The Republican Impeachment," Gentleman's
Magazine, January, 1873.
Bradlaugh, Charles, A Review of the Work of the Rev. E. Mellor
... entitled "The Atonement, its relation to pardon," (1859)
Bradlaugh, Charles, Robert Cooper's "Holy Scriptures Analyzed,"
with Sketch of his Life.
Bradlaugh, Charles, Secularism: What is it? National Secular
Society's Tracts -- No. 7
Bradlaugh, Charles, "Socialism; its Fallacies and Dangers," North
American Review,, January, 1887.
Bradlaugh, Charles, Some objections to Socialism. (1884)
Bradlaugh, Charles, Speeches, by Charles Bradlaugh. (1890)
Bradlaugh, Charles, Supernatural and Rational Morality. (1886)
Bradlaugh, Charles, Taxation: how it originated, how it is spent,
and who bears it. (1877)
Bradlaugh, Charles, Theological Essays. (1889)
Bradlaugh, Charles, The True Story of My Parliamentary Struggle.
(1882)
Bradlaugh, Charles, The Twelve Apostles. (1870)
Bradlaugh, Charles, The Two Napoleons. (1861)
Bradlaugh, Charles, Were Adam and Eve our First Parents? (1861)
Bradlaugh, Charles, What Can Theism say for itself? (1880?)
Bradlaugh, Charles, What did Jesus Teach? (1860 or earlier)
Bradlaugh, Charles, What Does the Bible Teach? (1860 or earlier)
Bradlaugh, Charles, What Does the Bible Teach about God? (1864 or
earlier)
Bradlaugh, Charles, What is Christianity? (1860 or earlier)
Bradlaugh, Charles, When Were Our Gospels Written? (1867)
Bradlaugh, Charles, Who was Jesus Christ? (1860)
Bradlaugh, Charles, "Why Are We Secularists?" National Secular
Society's Tracts -- No. 8.
Bradlaugh, Charles, Why Do Men Starve? (1865)
Bank of Wisdom
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117
A HISTORY OF THE BRITISH SECULAR MOVEMENT
Bradlaugh, Charles, Workmen and their Wages. (1888)
Bradlaugh, Charles, and the Rev. R.A. Armstrong, Is it Reasonable
to Worship God? Verbatim report of two nights' debate at
Nottingham between the Rev. R.A. Armstrong and Charles Bradlaugh
(1878)
Bradlaugh, Charles, and Rev. W. Barker, Modern Atheism and the
Bible: Report of the Discussion between the Rev. W. Barker ...
and Iconoclast ... (1862)
Bradlaugh, Charles, and Rev. Dr. Joseph Baylee, God, Man, and the
Bible. Three Nights' Discussion between the Rev. Joseph Baylee
... and Charles Bradlaugh ... June, 1860 ... (191-)
Bradlaugh, Charles, and Ernest Belfort Bax, Will Socialism
Benefit the English People? A Written debate between E. Belfort
Rax and Charles Bradlaugh (1887)
Bradlaugh, Charles, Annie Besant, and Charles Watts, The
Freethinkers' Textbook,, (1876-1877)
Bradlaugh, Charles, and Annie Besant, In the High Court of
Justice: Queen's Bench Division, June 18, 1877. The Queen v.
Charles Bradlaugh and Annie Besant. A verbatim report of the
trial of Bradlaugh and Besant for publishing the Knowlton
Pamphlet (1878)
Bradlaugh, Charles, and Annie Besant, Socialism; for and against:
written debate with Mrs. Besant (1887)
Bradlaugh, C. and Dr. Brindley, Discussion Between 'Iconoclast'
and Dr. Brindley. (1860 or earlier)
Bradlaugh, Charles, and W.R. Brown, Can Miracles be proved
possible? Verbatim report of the two nights' public debate
between ... Bradlaugh and W.R. Brown, etc. (1876)
Bradlaugh, Charles, Anthony Collins (W.H. Johnson), and John
Watts, Biographies of ancient and modern celebrated Freethinkers.
Reprinted from an English work, entitled "Half Hours with the
Freethinkers" (1877)
Bradlaugh, Charles, Anthony Collins (W. H. Johnson), and John
Watts, Half-hours with Freethinkers. (October, 1856-1857)
Bradlaugh, Charles, and Thomas Cooper, Two Nights' public
discussion ... on the being of a God as the maker and moral
governor of the universe ... 1864. (1874)
Bradlaugh, Charles, and Rev. Marsden Gibson, Has Humanity Gained
from Unbelief? Two nights' debate between the Rev. Marsden Gibson
... and Charles Bradlaugh (1889)
Bradlaugh, Charles, and W. Gillespie, Atheism Or Theism? Debate
between Iconoclast ... and W. Gillespie (1869-72)
Bank of Wisdom
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118
A HISTORY OF THE BRITISH SECULAR MOVEMENT
Bradlaugh, C. and Brewin Grant, A full Report of the Discussion
between B.G. and 'Iconoclast' ... (1858)
Bradlaugh, Charles, and the Rev. Brewin Grant, Discussion on
Atheism. Report of a public discussion between the Rev. Brewin
Grant ... and C. Bradlaugh ... 1875 ... (1875)
Bradlaugh, C., and A.J. Harrison, Secularism. Report of a public
discussion between the Rev. Alexander J. Harrison ... and Mr.
Charles Bradlaugh ... 1870 (1870)
Bradlaugh, Charles, and the Rev. A.J. Harrison, What does
Christian Theism Teach? Verbatim report of the two nights'
discussion between the Rev. A.J. Harrison and C. Bradlaugh ...
1872 (1909)
Bradlaugh, Charles, and G.J. Holyoake, Secularism, Skepticism,
and Atheism. Verbatim report of the proceedings of a two nights'
public debate between ... G.J. Holyoake and C. B. etc. (1870)
Bradlaugh, Charles, and W. Hutchins, Christianity and Secularism;
Report of a Public Discussion Between Mr. W. Hutchins and Mr. C.
Bradlaugh ... 1861 ... (1861)
Bradlaugh, Charles, and H.M. Hyndman, Eight Hours Movement.
Verbatim report of a debate between H.M. Hyndman and C. Bradlaugh
(1890)
Bradlaugh, Charles, and H.M. Hyndman, Will Socialism Benefit the
English People? Verbatim report of a debate between H.M. Hyndman
and C. Bradlaugh ... 1884 (1884)
Bradlaugh, Charles, and David King, Christianity v. Secularism.
Report of a ... discussion between D. King ... and C. B....
Subject: "What can Secularism do for Man that Christianity
cannot?" (1870)
Bradlaugh, Charles, and La Bauchere, Northampton's Voice on the
Royal Grants. Preface by C. Bradlaugh ... (188?)
Bradlaugh, Charles, and the Rev. T. Lawson, A discussion on the
Question, Has Man a Soul? between the Rev. T. Lawson ... and
Iconoclast ... (1861)
Bradlaugh, Charles, and the Rev. John Lightfoot, Eternal Torment.
A Written debate between the Rev. John Lightfoot ... and Charles
Bradlaugh ... 1876, (1888)
Bradlaugh, Charles, and the Rev. James M. McCann, Secularism:
Unphilosophical, immoral, and anti-social. Verbatim report of a
three nights' debate between the Rev. Dr. Cann (sic) and Charles
Bradlaugh ... 1881. (1881)
Bradlaugh, Charles, and Dr. W.C. Magee, Bishop of Peterborough,
Christianity in Relation to Freethought, Skepticism, and Faith.
Three Discourses by the Bishop of Peterborough, with special
replies by Charles Bradlaugh (1892)
Bank of Wisdom
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119
A HISTORY OF THE BRITISH SECULAR MOVEMENT
Bradlaugh, Charles, and Mr. Mackie, A Full Report of the
Discussion between Mr. Mackie ... and Iconoclast (Mr. Bradlaugh)
... 1861, on the question, What does the Bible teach about God?
(1861)
Bradlaugh, Charles, and the Rev. T.D. Matthias, The Credibility
and Morality of the Four Gospels -- a debate ... (1859)
Bradlaugh, Charles, and Sir Stafford Northcote, Northampton and
the House of Commons. Correspondence between C. Bradlaugh and Sir
Stafford Northcote, (1884)
Bradlaugh, Charles, and Robert Roberts, Is the Bible Divine? A
six nights' discussion between Mr. Charles Bradlaugh and Mr.
Robert Roberts ... Together with a review of the discussion by
Mr. Roberts (1876)
Bradlaugh, Charles, and A. Robertson, The Existence of God.
Verbatim report of ... debate between Messrs, A. Robertson and
C.B. etc. (1870)
Bradlaugh, Charles, and the Rev. J.H. Rutherford, Are the
Doctrines and precepts of Christianity, as taught in the New
Testament calculated to benefit humanity? Report of the debate
... between "Iconoclast" and J.H. Rutherford (1861)
Bradlaugh, Charles, and W. Simpson, Disestablishment and
Disendowment of the English Church. ... Report ... of the debate
between ... C. Bradlaugh and W. Simvson, etc. (1876)
Bradlaugh, Charles, and John Watts, Half-hours with Freethinkers.
(1864)
Bradlaugh, Charles, and W.M. Westerby, Has, or is, Man a Soul?
Debate between Rev. W.M. Westerby and Charles Bradlaugh (1909)
Bradlaugh, Charles, and the Rev. Woodville. Woodman, The
Existence of God: A Discussion between Rev. Woodville Woodman,
and "Iconoclast" 1861 (1861)
Bradlaugh, Charles, and Woodville Woodman, Is the Bible a Divine
Revelation? A Discussion between Rev. W. Woodman and Iconoclast
... 1861 (1861)
Bradlaugh, Charles. and Others. Notes on Christian Evidences;
being criticisms on "The Oxford House Papers" With replies by the
authors of the Papers (1909)
"Bradlaugh, (Charles)," Biographical Dictionary of Freethinkers,
by J. M. Wheeler (1889)
"Bradlaugh, Charles." Biographical Dictionary of Modern
Rationalists, by Joseph McCabe (1920)
"Bradlaugh, Charles," Dictionary of National Biography. (1901)
"Bradlaugh, Charles," Chambers' Encyclopedia
Bank of Wisdom
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120
A HISTORY OF THE BRITISH SECULAR MOVEMENT
Bragdon. Claude Favette, A Brief Life of Annie Besant. (1909)
The Brighton Guardian. (1878-1880)
Buchanan, James, Faith in God and Modern Atheism. (1855)
Buchanan, James, Modern Atheism under its forms of Pantheism,
Materialism, secularism, development, and natural laws. (1859)
Butts. Asa K.. Sketch of the Life of Mrs. Besant. Prefatory to
American edition of her Marriage; as it was, as it is, and as it
should be (1979)
Cattell. C.C., Compiler, Agnosticism: an exposition and a
defense. Selected from leading authorities (19-)
Cattell. C.C., The Dark Side of Christianity.
Cattell, C.C., In Search of a Religion.
Cattell, C.C., Is Darwinism Atheistic? (1884)
Cattell. C.C., The Land: How to Make it Feed the People and Pay
the
Taxes. ... With Reply to Hon. John Bright, M.P. (1879?)
Cattell. C.C., The Man of the Past, the evidence of his natural
origin and great antiquity (1891)
Cattell. C. C., The Martyrs of Progress. (1878)
Cattell, C.C., Mr. John Bright and Labour Representation.
Cattell, C.C., Radicalism and Imperialism.
Cattell, C. C., Ralph Waldo Emerson,
Cattell, C. C., Secularism, Its Principles Stated.
Cattell. C. C., A Secularist's Principles. (1864)
Cattell, C.C., Secularism: What is it?
Cattell, C.C., The Solution of the Irish Land Question. What the
government must do. Inscribed to the Right Hon. W.E. Gladstone
(188-?)
Cattell. C.C., What is a Freethinker with a special reference to
Mr. R.D. Dale, M.A.
"Cattell, C.C.," Biographical Dictionary of Modern Rationalists,
by
Joseph McCabe (1920)
Centenary Committee, Editors, Champion of Liberty: Charles
Bradlaugh (1933)
Cheyney, E.P., Modern English Reform (1930)
Bank of Wisdom
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121
A HISTORY OF THE BRITISH SECULAR MOVEMENT
Chew. S.J., Mr. G.J. Holyoake refuted in his own words. (1852)
Churchill. Winston Spencer. Lord Randolph Churchill. (1906)
Clark, J., The Spurious ethics of the skeptical philosophy; a
critique of Mr. Holyoake's "Logic of Life" (1860)
Clepane, Miss Irene, Towards Sex Freedom. (1935)
Cohen, Chapman, Almost an Autobiography (1940)
Cohen, Chapman, An Atheist's Approach to Christianity (1942)
Cohen, Chapman, Blasphemy; a plea for Religious Equality (1922)
Cohen, Chapman, Bradlaugh and Ingersoll. A centenary appreciation
of Two Great Reformers. (1933)
Cohen, Chapman, Christianity and Slavery. With a Chapter on
Christianity and the Labour Movement. (1918)
Cohen, Chapman, Christianity and Social Ethics. (1910)
Cohen, Chapman, Christianity and Woman. (1937)
Cohen, Chapman, The Church's Fight for the Child (1938)
Cohen, Chapman, Creed and Character, The Influence of Religion on
social life (1919)
Cohen, Chapman, Deity and Design. (1912)
Cohen, Chapman, Determinism or Free Will. (1912)
Cohen, Chapman, The Devil (1937)
Cohen, Chapman, Did Jesus Christ Exist? (1937)
Cohen, Chapman, Essays in Freethinking. (1923-27)
Cohen, Chapman, Evolution and Christianity. (1897)
Cohen, Chapman, Fascism and Christianity (1938)
Cohen, Chapman, Foreign Missions: their dangers and delusions
(1901)
Cohen, Chapman, Foundations of Religion
Cohen, Chapman, Four Lectures on Freethought and Life
Cohen, Chapman, Freethought and the Child (1939)
Cohen, Chapman, Giving 'em Hell (1938)
Cohen, Chapman, God and Evolution (1925)
Bank of Wisdom
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122
A HISTORY OF THE BRITISH SECULAR MOVEMENT
Cohen, Chapman, God and Man. An Essay in common sense and natural
morality (1918)
Cohen, Chapman, Gods and Their Makers. (1937)
Cohen, Chapman, God and the Universe. Eddington, Jeans, Huxley,
and Einstein. ... with a reply by Professor A.S. Eddington (1931)
Cohen, Chapman, A Grammar of Freethought. (1921)
Cohen, Chapman, Humanity and War (1939)
Cohen, Chapman, Letters to a Country Vicar. (1934)
Cohen, Chapman, Letters to the Lord. (1935)
Cohen, Chapman, The Massacre of the innocents. National Secular
Society Leaflet No. 7 (1917)
Cohen, Chapman, Materialism Restated. (1927)
Cohen, Chapman, Morality Without God. (1937)
Cohen, Chapman, Must We Have a Religion? (1937)
Cohen, Chapman, Opinions. Random Reflections and wayside sayings
(1930)
Cohen, Chapman, The Other Side of Death. A critical examination
of the belief in a future life, with a study of spiritualism
(1922)
Cohen, Chapman, An Outline of Evolutionary Ethics. (1896)
Cohen, Chapman, Pagan Survivals in Modern Thought
Cohen, Chapman, Pain and Providence. (189?)
Cohen, Chapman, Pioneer Leaflets. No. 1 to 6 (1900?)
Cohen, Chapman, Primitive Survivals in Modern Thought. (1935)
Cohen, Chapman, Religion and the Child. (1916)
Cohen, Chapman, Religion and Sex; studies in the pathology of
religious development (1919)
Cohen, Chapman, The Salvation Army and its Work. (1906)
Cohen, Chapman, Selected Heresies from the writings of Chapman
Cohen. (1931)
Cohen, Chapman, Socialism, Atheism, and Christianity. (1908)
Cohen, Chapman, Socialism and the Churches. (1919)
Cohen, Chapman, Spain and the Church. (1936)
Bank of Wisdom
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123
A HISTORY OF THE BRITISH SECULAR MOVEMENT
Cohen, Chapman, Theism or Atheism; the great alternative (1921)
Cohen, Chapman, Thou Shalt Not Suffer a Witch to Live (1939)
Cohen, Chapman, War -- civilization and the churches (1930)
Cohen, Chapman, What is Freethought? (1937)
Cohen, Chapman, What is the Use of a Future Life? (1938)
Cohen, Chapman, What is the use of Prayer? (1897)
Cohen, Chapman, Woman and Christianity. The subjection and
exploitation of a sex (1919)
Cohen, Chapman, and C.E.M. Joad, Materialism: has it been
exploded? verbatim report of (a) debate between Chapman Cohen and
C.E.M. Joad ... 1928 ... revised by both disputants (1928)
Cohen, Chapman, and Horace Leaf, Does Man Survive Death? Is the
Belief Reasonable? A debate between Mr. Horace Leaf and Mr.
Chapman Cohen ... 1920 (1920)
Cohen, Chapman, and Hon. Edward Lyttleton, The Parson and the
Atheist, a friendly discussion on religion and life, between
(the) Rev. and Hon. Edward Lyttleton ... and Chapman Cohen (1919)
"Cohen, Chapman," Biographical Dictionary of Modern Rationalists,
by Joseph McCabe (1920)
Cole G.D.H., Life of Robert Owen. (1930)
Coleridge, Ernest Hartley, Life and correspondence of John Duke
Lord Coleridge, lord chief justice of England. (1904)
Coleridge, Baron J.D., The Law of Blasphemous Libel. The summing
up in the case of Regina v. Foote and others, etc. (1883)
Collet, C.D., History of the Taxes on Knowledge. Their origin and
repeal. With an Introduction by George Jacob Holyoake (1899)
Collet, Sophia Dobson, The Almanack of Freedom. (1855)
Collet, Sophia Dobson, George Jacob Holyoake and Modern Atheism.
A biographical and critical essay (1855)
Conway, Moncure D., Autobiography. (1904)
Conway, M.D., Blasphemous libels. (1883)
Conway, M.D., The Oath and its ethics. (1881)
Conway, Moncure D., The Voysey Case, from an heretical viewpoint
(1871)
Cooper, Robert, Autobiography. (1874)
Bank of Wisdom
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124
A HISTORY OF THE BRITISH SECULAR MOVEMENT
Cooper, Robert, The Bible and its Evidences. (1858)
Cooper, Robert, The Immortality of the Soul, religiously and
philosophically considered. (1882)
Cooper, Robert, A reply to Thomas Cooper's recent lectures on God
and a future State. (1856?)
"Cooper, (Robert), Biographical Dictionary of Freethinkers, by
J.M. Wheeler (1889)
"Cooper, Robert," Biographical Dictionary of Modern Rationalists,
by Joseph McCabe (1920)
Cooper, Thomas, Life of Thomas Cooper. Written by Himself (1882)
Cooper, Thomas, The Triumphs of Perseverance and Enterprise.
(1854)
The Councillor on Secular, cooperative and political questions.
(1861)
Courtney, Janet E., Freethinkers of the Nineteenth Century.
(1920)
Cowper, B.H., The Logic of Life and Death, etc. (In answer to a
tract by G.J. Holyoake "The Logic of Death," etc.) (1865)
Cumming, Dr., Moses right, Colenso wrong: being popular lectures
in reply to the first and second parts of "Bishop Colenso on the
Pentateuch" (1863)
Curzon, F., The Gift of Life ... A Letter addressed to Mr.
Holyoake in reply to the "Logic of Death" (1853)
Davidson, J. Morrison, Eminent English Liberals in and out of
Parliament. (1880)
Davies, Dr. Maurice, Heterodox London: or phases of freethought
in the metropolis (1874)
Dennis, Geoffrey, Coronation Commentary (1937)
Dhar, Vishnunarayana, Mr. Bradlaugh's Indian Reform Bill. (1890)
"Dr. Annie Besant, Crusader, is Dead" New York Times, Sept. 22,
1933. (1933)
Dodsworth, James, Letter to the Shareholders of the National
Reformer Company, giving an account of the way in which the
editor was reelected at the March meeting, by James Dodsworth,
Chairman of the Board of Directors (1862)
Douglas, John Sholte, 8th Marquis of Queensberry, The Religion of
Secularism and the Perfectibility of man (18??)
"Douglas, Sir John Sholte," Biographical Dictionary of Modern
Rationalists, by Joseph McCabe (1920)
Bank of Wisdom
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125
A HISTORY OF THE BRITISH SECULAR MOVEMENT
Drysdale, George R., The Elements of Social Science. (1861)
Duncan, David, Life and Letters of Herbert Spencer (1908)
Elgood, John Charles, Thoughts on Theism ... A response to the
interrogatory of the lecture delivered by Charles Bradlaugh ...
last year and entitled "What Can Theism Say for itself?" ...
(1880)
Elliott, Hugh, Editor, Letters (of John Stuart Mill) (1910)
The English Leader, A Journal for the discussion of stationary
questions. (1864 and 1866)
Farrar, Frederick William, The Bible, its meaning and Supremacy.
(1897)
Farrar, Reginald, The Life of Frederick William Farrar, Sometime
dean of Canterbury, by his son R. Farrar (1904)
Faulkner, H.U., Chartism and the Churches (1916)
The Fleet Street Advertiser (1854)
Flint, Robert, Anti-Theistic Theories. (1880)
Foote, G.W., Arrows of Freethought. (1882)
Foote, G.W., Atheism and Morality, (1880)
Foote, G.W., Atheism and Suicide. A reply to Alfred Tennyson
(1881)
Foote, G.W., The Atheist Shoemaker and the Rev. Hugh Price
Hughes, or, A Study in Lying, with a full and complete exposure
(1890)
Foote, G.W., Bible and Beer. (1912)
Foote, G.W., The Bible Devil. (189-?)
Foote, G.W., The Bible God, (1889)
Foote, G.W., Bible Heroes., (1882)
Foote, G.W., Bible Romances, (1882)
Foote, G.W., Blasphemy no crime, The whole question treated
historically,, legally, theologically, and morally with special
reference to the prosecution of the "Freethinker" (1882)
Foote, G.W., The Book of God in the Light of Higher Criticism,
with Special reference to Dean Farrar's new apology (1897?)
Foote, G.W., Christianity and Progress. A reply to the Rt. Hon.
W.E. Gladstone (1902)
Bank of Wisdom
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A HISTORY OF THE BRITISH SECULAR MOVEMENT
Foote, G.W., Comic Sermons and other fantasias, (1892)
Foote, G.W., The Creation Story. (1882?)
Foote, G.W., The Crucifixion. (188-?)
Foote, G.W., Death's Test: or, Christian lies about dying
Infidels (1882)
Foote, G.W., Defence of Free Speech; being a three hours' address
to jury in the Court of Queen's Bench before Lord Coleridge on
April 24, 1883 (New Ed., 1889)
Foote, G.W., Dr. Torrey and the Bible, (1905)
Foote, G.W., Dr. Torrey and the Infidels. (1905)
Foote, G.W., Dropping the Devil, and other free Church
performances. (1902)
Foote, G.W., The Few Who are Saved. (1910?)
Foote, G.W., Flowers of Freethought. (1894),
Foote, G.W., Futility of Prayer. (1879)
Foote, G.W., Gladstone's Irish Stew.. (1886)
Foote, G.W., The God the Christians Swear By. (1882)
Foote, G.W., God in a Box. (189-?)
Foote, G.W., God save the King, and other Coronation Articles, by
an English Republican (1903)
Foote, G.W., God, The Soul, and a Future State. (1875)
Foote, G.W., Gospel Ghosts, (189-?)
Foote, G.W,, The Grand Old Book, a reply to the Rt. Hon. W.E.
Gladstone's "The Impregnable Rock of Holy Scripture" (1891)
Foote, G.W., Editor, The Hall of Science libel case. With a full
and true account of "The Leeds Orgies". Edited, with an
introduction, by G.W. Foote (1895)
Foote, G.W., Heroes and Martyrs of Freethought. (1876)
Foote, G.W., The Impossible Creed; an open letter to the Bishop
of Peterborough (1890)
Foote, G.W., Infidel Deathbeds. (1886)
Foote, G.W., Ingersallism defended against Archdeacon Farrar.
(1892)
Foote, G.W., Editor, "An Essay on Suicide," by David Hume; with
an historical and critical introduction by G.W. Foote (1894)
Bank of Wisdom
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A HISTORY OF THE BRITISH SECULAR MOVEMENT
Foote, G.W., Editor, A refutation of Deism in a dialogue by Percy
Bysshe Shelley. With an introduction by G.W. Foote (1890)
Foote, G.W., Is the Bible inspired? ... A criticism on "Lux
Mundi" (1890)
Foote, G.W., John Morley as a Freethinker: a statement and a
criticism. With numerous extracts from Morley's writings (1893)
Foote, G.W., Jonah's Excursion to Nineveh. (1885)
Foote, G.W., Letters to the Clergy. (1890)
Foote, G.W., Letters to Jesus Christ. (1886)
Foote, G.W., A Lie in Five Chapters? or, The Rev. Hugh Price
Hughes's "converted atheist" (1890)
Foote, G.W.,. The Mother of God. (1918)
Foote, G.W., Miscellaneous Essays. (1895)
Foote, G.W., Mrs. Besant's Theosophy. (1889)
Foote, G.W., My Resurrection; a missing Chapter from the Gospel
of St. Matthew, discovered and published by G.W. Foote (1892)
Foote, G.W., The New Cagliostro; an open letter to Madame
Blavatsky (1889)
Foote, G.W., Noah's Flood: a Chapter of Biblical Romauce (187-?)
Foote, G.W., The Passing of Jesus: or, The Last adventures of the
first Messiah (1902)
Foote, G.W., Peculiar People: an open letter to Mr. Justice
Wills, on his sentencing Thomas George Senior to four months'
imprisonment with hard labour, for obeying the Bible (1899)
Foote, G.W., The Philosophy of Secularism. (1879)
Foote, G.W., Editor, A philosophical inquiry concerning human
liberty, by Anthony Collins. Reprinted with preface and
annotations by G.W. Foote, and biographical introduction by J.M.
Wheeler. (1890)
Foote, G.W., Prisoner for Blasphemy. (1886)
Foote, G.W., Randolph Churchill: the Woodstock bantam (Second
edition, 1885)
Foote, G.W., Reminiscences of Charles Bradlaugh. (1891)
Foote, G.W., The Resurrection. (188-)
Foote, G.W., A Rising God. (188-?)
Bank of Wisdom
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A HISTORY OF THE BRITISH SECULAR MOVEMENT
Foote, G.W., Rome or Atheism, the great alternative. (1892)
Foote, G.W., Royal Paupers, showing what royalty does for the
people ... (Third edition, 1888)
Foote, G.W., Salvation Syrup: or, Light on Darkest England. A
reply to 'General Booth. (1891)
Foote, G.W., Secularism and its Misrepresentation.
Foote, G.W., Secularism Restated.
Foote, G.W., Secularism and Theosophy: a rejoinder to Mrs.
Besant's pamphlet (1889)
Foote, G.W., Secularism, the True Philosophy of Life. An
exposition and a defence (1879)
Foote, G.W., The Shadow of the Sword. (1885)
Foote, G.W., The Sign of the Cross; a candid criticism of Mr,
Wilson Barrett's play (1896)
Foote, G.W., A Virgin Mother. (1882?)
Foote, G.W., The Wandering Jews. (1882)
Foote, G.W., Was Jesus Insane? (1882)
Foote, G.W., What is Agnosticism? With observations on Huxley,
Bradlaugh, and Ingersoll, and a reply to George Jacob Holyoake;
also a defence of atheism (1902)
Foote, G.W., What was Christ? A Reply to John Stuart Mill. (i.e.,
to, "Nature, the Utility of Religion, and Theism") (1887)
Foote, G.W., Who Was the Father of Jesus? (1895)
Foote, G.W., Why be good without hope of heaven or fear of hell?
The: answer of freethought
Foote, G.W., Will Christ Save Us? (1892)
Foote, G.W., and W.P. Ball. Editors, Bible Atrocities. (1891)
Foote, G.W., and W.P. Ball, Editors, The Bible Handbook for
Freethinkers and Inquiring Christians (1888?)
Foote, G.W., and W.T. Lee, Theism or Atheism: which is the more
reasonable? A public debate between Mr. W.T. Lee ... and Mr. G.W.
Foote ... 1895 (1896)
Foote, G.W., and H.A. Long, Verbatim Report of the public
discussion upon 'The Origin of Man,' between ... G.W.F. and H.A.
Long ... (1877)
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A HISTORY OF THE BRITISH SECULAR MOVEMENT
Foote, G.W., and Rev. D.G. McCann, Christianity or Secularism,
Which is true? Verbatim report of a public debate between the
Rev. Dr. James McCann and Mr. G.W. Foote ... (1886)
Foote, G.W., and G. Sexton, Christianity and Secularism. Verbatim
reports of two ... debates ... the second on Secularism, between
G.W.F. and G. Sexton. (1878)
Foote, G.W., and G. Sexton, Is Secularism the true Gospel for
Mankind? Verbatim report of a debate ... between G.W.F. and G.
Sexton (1878)
Foote, G.W., and Bernard Shaw, The Legal Eight Hours' Question. A
public debate between Mr. George Bernard Shaw and Mr. G.W. Foote
... (1891)
Foote, G.W., and Charles Watts, Heroes and Martyrs of
Freethought. (1875)
Foote, G.W., and J.M. Wheeler, Crimes of Christianity. (1887)
Foote, G.W., and J.M. Wheeler, Editors, The Jewish Life of
Christ; being the Sepher Foldath Jeshu; or, Book of the
Generation of Jesus. Translated from the Hebrew. Edited (with an
historical preface and voluntinous notes). (1919)
Foote, G.W., and J.M. Wheeler, Voltaire: a sketch of his life and
works. (1894)
"Foote, George William," Biographical Dictionary of Modern
Rationalists. (1920)
Forder, R., Saint Agnes and Saint Bridget and their Pagan
Prototypes. (1888)
Forder, R., 'There was War in Heaven.' An Infidel Sermon. (1891)
Freethinker. (1881 to date)
Gardiner, A.G., Life of Sir William Harcourt. (1923)
Gay, Susan E., Life Work of Mrs. Besant. (1913)
"George Jacob Holyoake," Review of Reviews,, v. 24, pp. 249-261
(1901)
Gill, Charles, The recent prosecutions (of G.W. Foote and others)
for blasphemy, and the debate in the House of Commons on the
Affirmation Bill., By the author of 'The Evolution of
Christianity.' (1883)
"Gimson, Josiah," Biographical Dictionary of Modern Rationalists.
(1920)
"Gimson, Sydney Ansell," Biographical Dictionary of Modern
Rationalists. (1920)
Bank of Wisdom
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A HISTORY OF THE BRITISH SECULAR MOVEMENT
Girdlestone, A.G., Christianity under Fire. Forty-six points of
attack by C. Bradlaugh, examined in a lecture, etc ... (1876).
Gladstone, W.E., The Impregnable Rock of Holy Scripture. Revised
and enlarged ... (1892)
Gladstone, W.E., Ingersoll on Christianity. (1888)
Gladstone, W.E., Parliamentary Oaths. Speech delivered in the
house of Commons, on the second reading of the parliamentary
Oaths Act Amendment Bill ... (1883)
Gladstone, W.E., "True and false Conceptions of the Atonement,"
Nineteenth Century, September, 1894.
Goss, C.W.F., A Descriptive Bibliography of the Writings of G.J.
Holyoake. (1908)
Gould, F.J., The Building of the Bible. Showing the chronological
order in which the books ... appeared ... (1898)
Gould, Frederick James, Chats with Pioneers of Modern Thought.
(1898)
Could, F.J., Life Story of a Humanist. (1923)
Gould, F.J., The New Pilgrim's Progress from Christianity to
Secularism. (1883)
Gould, F.J., "The New Secularism," Agnostic Annual and Ethical
Review (1902)
Gould, F.J., The Pioneers of Johnson's Court; a history of the
Rationalist Press Association from 1899 onwards (1929)
Gould, F.G., The Religion of the First Christians. (1901)
Gould, F.J., Stepping-stones to Agnosticism, With an introduction
by G.J. (Holyoake). (1889)
Gould, F.J., Will Women Help? An appeal to women to assist in
liberating modern, thought from theological hands (1900)
"Gould, Frederick James," Biographical Dictionary of Modern
Rationalists. (1920)
Grant, Brewin, The Life of Joseph Barker the Infidel, done from
his own works, by B.G. (Reprinted from the Sheffield Christian
News.) (1860)
Grant, Brewin, Oaths and Infidels: or the believableness of
Unbelievers. A letter to Lord J. Russell. (1854)
Grant, Brewin, A Pen and Ink Sketch of Iconoclast (i.e. C.
Bradlaugh.) ... Seventh edition. (1860)
Greg, Percy, The Creed of a Secularist, By Lionel H. Holdreth
(pseudonym) (1857)
Bank of Wisdom
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A HISTORY OF THE BRITISH SECULAR MOVEMENT
Greg, Percy, The Devil's Advocate. (1878)
Greg, Percy, Shadows of the Past. (1856)
Handsacre, Alan, The Revenues of Religion with a record of
established religion in England (1932)
Harrington, G.F. (Rev. William Mumford Baker), Northampton
Election Difficulties, dilated upon as a struggle by Bradlaugh
Atheism against Christianity. (1881)
Headingley, Adolphe S., The Biography of Charles Bradlaugh.
(1883)
Headiam, Stewart Duckworth, The London School Board in 1890: an
address, etc. (1890)
Headlan, Stewart, Priestcraft or Progress. (1873)
Heaford, William, Translator, Jesus Christ: His Apostles and
disciples in the twentieth century, by Count Camille de Renessee.
Translated ... by William Heaford (1907)
Hillier, William, Christianity, Science, and infidelity: a series
of letters ... showing the follies ... of atheism ... occasioned
by the return of C. Bradlaugh as a member of Parliament for
Northampton ... With a prefatory recommendation by H. Varley
(1881)
Hillier, William, Should Christians support Mr. Bradlaugh the
avowed Atheist, in his attempt to get into Parliament? Report of
a lecture, etc. (1883)
Himes, Norman E., Medical History of Contraception. (1936)
Himes, Norman E., Medical History of Contraception. (1934)
Hinton, J. Howard, the Elder, A Lecture on the conclusion of the
discussion between G.J. Holyoake and ... B. Grant. (1853)
Hinton, J. Howard, Secular Tracts,, (1853)
Holyoake, Austin, The Apostles of Christ: a farce in Several
Acts.
Holyoake, Austin, The Book of Esther; a specimen of what passes
as 'the inspired word of God.'
Holyoake, Austin, Daniel the Dreamer: a biblical biography
Holyoake, Austin, Does there exist a moral governor of the
Universe? An argument against the alleged universal benevolence
in nature (1870)
Holyoake, Austin, Facetiae for Freethinkers (collected by A.
Holyoake)
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A HISTORY OF THE BRITISH SECULAR MOVEMENT
Holyoake, Austin, Heaven and Hell: Where Situated. A Search after
the objects of man's fervent hope and abiding terror (18-?)
Holyoake, Austin, Large or Small Families? on which side lies the
Balance of Comfort? (1870)
Holyoake, Austin, Ludicrous Aspects of Christianity; A response
to the Challenge of the Bishop of Manchester (18-?)
Holyoake, Austin, Secular Ceremonies. A Burial Service (1870)
Holyoake, Austin, A Secular Prayer
Holyoake, Austin, Sick Room Thoughts.
Holyoake, Austin, Superstition, and how it operates upon the
Human Mind, forcibly portrayed by Pitt, first Earl of Chatham,
with Commentary by Austin Holyoake
Holyoake, Austin, Thoughts on Atheism; or, Can Man by searching
find out God (1870)
Holyoake, Austin, Would a Republican Form of Government be
Suitable for England? (1873)
Holyoake, Austin, and Charles Watts, Editors, Secularists' Manual
of Songs and Ceremonies. (1871)
"Holyoake, (Austin)," Biographical Dictionary of Freethinkers by
J.M. Wheeler. (1889)
"Holyoake, Austin," Biographical Dictionary of Modern
Rationalists. (1920)
Holyoake, G.J., Affirmation and appeal case fund. (1862)
Holyoake, G.J., Alien features of Secularism. (1877)
Holyoake, G.J., 'Among the Americans,' and 'A Stranger in
America.' (1881)
Holyoake, G.J., Anti-Boycott Papers. (1902)
Holyoake, G.J., British Secular Institute of Communication and
Propagandism. (1857)
Holyoake, G.J., Bygones Worth Remembering. (1905)
Holyoake, G.J., The Case of Thomas Pooley. (1857)
Holyoake, G.J., The Changes in religious opinion in England since
1841.
Holyoake, G.J., The Child's First Reading book. (1853)
Holyoake, G.J., The, Child's First Word book. (1854)
Bank of Wisdom
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A HISTORY OF THE BRITISH SECULAR MOVEMENT
Holyoake, G.J., The Child's Ladder of Knowledge. (1866)
Holyoake, G.J., Circular from Mr. Holyoake (for friends of
Secular Progress only). (1854)
Holyoake, G.J., Editor, The Circular of the Anti-persecution
league.
Holyoake, G.J., Civil Equality: the Parliamentary progress of the
Affirmation Bill (1863)
Holyoake, G.J., Common People. (1870)
Holyoake, G.J., Constitution and objects of Secular Societies
from the Manchester Conference Report. (1852)
Holyoake, G.J., Controversial Characteristics of the Scotch
People. (1854)
Holyoake, G.J., The Cooperative Movement To-day. (1891)
Holyoake, G.J., Cumming Wrong; Colenso right. A reply to Dr.
Cumming's 'Moses right, Colenso wrong' (1863)
Holyoake, G.J., Death of Mrs. G.J. Holyoake, 1819-1884. (1884)
Holyoake, G.J., Defeat of the Rev. Sidney Gedge of Northampton in
the Queen's Bench. (1861)
Holyoake, G.J., Deliberate Liberalism; four instances of it
(1886)
Holyoake, G.J., Diary.
Holyoake, G.J., Eclectic Catalogue January 1866, (1866)
Holyoake, C.J., English Secularism; a confession of belief (1896)
Holyoake, G.J., Essentials of Co-operative Education. (1898)
Holyoake, G.J., Excluded Evidence on the ground of speculative
opinion. (1865)
Holyoake, G.J. Freethought Lectureships in connection with "The
Secular World." (1862)
Holyoake, G.J., The Government and the Working Man's press.
(1853)
Holyoake, G.J., The History of Co-operation in England: its
literature and its advocates (1875)
Holyoake, G.J., History of Fleet Street House: a report of
Sixteen Years (1856)
Holyoake, G.J., The History of the Last Trial by Jury for Atheism
in England; a fragment of autobiography, submitted for the
perusal of Her Majesty's Attorney-general and the British clergy
(1850)
Bank of Wisdom
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A HISTORY OF THE BRITISH SECULAR MOVEMENT
Holyoake, G.J., History of the Travelling Tax (1901)
Holyoake, G.J., Hostile and generous toleration. (1884)
Holyoake, G.J., The Impossibility of Proving the Existence of God
by the design argument. (1861)
Holyoake G.J., The India and China tea mart; the history of
Indian and Chinese Teas (1853)
Holyoake, G.J., In the Matter of the Affirmation Bill. (1861)
Holyoake, G.J., In Memoriam, Austin Holyoake died April 10, 1874.
(1874)
Holyoake, G.J., Introduction to "Conspiracy of Grocers against
Public Education," by H.O. Arnold-Forster (1890?)
Holyoake, G.J., John Stuart Mill as some of the working classes
knew him. (1873)
Holyoake, G.J, The Jubilee History of the Leeds Industrial Co-
operative Society. (1897)
Holyoake, G.J., Jurisprudence and Amendment of the law. (1884)
Holyoake, G.J., Lectures and Debates: their terms, condition and
character (1860)
Holyoake, G.J., Ledru Rollin. (1855)
Holyoake, G.J., The Lesson of the Hangman.
Holyoake G.J., Editor, "Letter to the Parliament and to the
Press" (Pyat, Felix) (1858)
Holyoake, G.J., Letter to the Subscribers of the Fund made during
my recent illness. (1877)
Holyoake, G.J., The Liberal Situation; necessity for a qualified
franchise. A letter to Joseph Corven, jun. (1865)
Holyoake, G.J., Libra; or, the balances; a review of 'Mene Tekel'
(1853)
Holyoake, G.J., Life and Career of Charles Bradlaugh. (1891)
Holyoake, G.J., Life of Joseph Rayner Stephens, preacher and
political orator ... (1881)
Holyoake, G.J., The Limits of Atheism; or, Why should sceptics be
outlaws? (1861)
Holyoake, G.J., The Logic of Death; or, Why should the Unbeliever
or Atheist fear to die? (1850)
Holyoake, G.J., The Logic of Facts; or, Art of Reasoning by
Facts. (1848)
Bank of Wisdom
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A HISTORY OF THE BRITISH SECULAR MOVEMENT
Holyoake, G.J., The Logic of Life, deduced from the principle of
freethought (1861)
Holyoake, G.J., Mr. Holyoake's Disconnection with the National
Reformer, and the correspondence which accounts for it (1862)
Holyoake, G.J., Murder as a Mode of Progress.
Holyoake, G.J., A New defence of the Ballot, in consequence of
Mr. Mill's objections to it (1868)
Holyoake, G.J., New Ideas of the Day. (1887)
Holyoake, G.J., Omar Khayyam; strange story of the Macmillans and
a Leicester Book-seller (1898)
Holyoake, G.J., On Lecturing: its conditions and character (1860)
Holyoake G.J., The Opportunity of Ireland. (1886)
Holyoake: G.J., The Organisation of Freethinkers. (1852)
Holyoake, G.J., Organisation; not of Arms, but of Ideas. (1853)
Holyoake, G.J., Origin and Nature of Secularism. (1896)
Holyoake, G. J., The Outlaws of Freethought: the policy which may
secure an affirmation bill (1861)
Holyoake, G.J., Editor, The Path I took and where it led me. An
autobiography and argument. By a Monmouthshire Farmer. (1894)
Holyoake, G.J., Patriotism by Charity. (1885)
Holyoake, G.J., Plain words about Seculitrism. (1882)
Holyoake, G.J., Plea for Affirmation in Parliament. (1882)
Holyoake, G.J., Preface to 'The Confessions of Rousseau.
Abridged' (1857)
Holyoake, G.J., Preface to 'Essays in Rationalism, by Charles
Robert Newman (1891)
Holyoake, G.J., Preface to 'Political Poems' by Victor Hugo and
Garibaldi, etc.
Holyoake, G.J., The Principles of Secularism Briefly Explained.
(1859)
Holyoake, G.J., The Provincial Mind. (1877)
Holyoake, G.J., Public Lessons for the Hangman. (1864)
Holyoake, G.J., Public performances of the.dead: a review of
American spiritualism (1865)
Holyoake, G.J., Public Speaking and Debate. (1875)
Bank of Wisdom
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A HISTORY OF THE BRITISH SECULAR MOVEMENT
Holyoake, G.J., Reciprocity Explained. (1885)
Aolyoake, G.J., Report of the Fleet Street House. (1858)
Ifolyoake, G.J., Rich Man's Six, and Poor Man's one Day: a letter
to Lord Palmerston (1856)
Holyoake, G.J., Robbing a Thousand Peters to pay one Paul. (1885)
Holyoake, G.J., Robert Owen, Precursor of social progress (1902)
Holyoake, G.J., A Secular Catechism for children; adapted from
the Rev. H.W. Crosskey's Catechism of religion for the use of
children (1854)
Holyoake, G.J., A Secular Prayer by Mr., G.J. Holyoake in
invertiel Church, Kirlcaldy (1854)
Holyoake, G.J., The secular preacher. With a picture of the Rev.
Thomas Binney (1857)
Holyoake, G.J., Secular Prospects in Death. The late Councillor
Josiah Gimson (1883)
Holyoake, G.J., Secular Responsibility, (1873)
Holyoake, G.J., Secularism and the place it Occupies. (1861)
Holyoake, G.J., Secularism distiguished from Unitarianism. (1855)
Holyoake, G.J., Secularism, the practical philosophy of the
people, (1854)
Holyoake, G.J., Secularism a Religion which gives Heaven no
trouble ... (1882)
Holyoake, G. J., Secularism; its sphere and its services, (1853)
Holyoake, G.J., Self-Help a Hundred Years Ago. (1858)
Holyoake, G.J., Self-Help by the People: the history of the
Rochdale Pioneers, 1844-1992 (1893)
Holyoake, G.J., Sixty Years of an Agitator's Life. (1892)
Holyoake, G.J., "Socialism and its advocates: a letter from Mr.
Joseph Barker; with the reply of the Editor of The Reasoner"
(1853)
Holyoake, G.J., Social Ideas of the People, a Hundred Years Ago.
Holyoake, G.J., The Social means of Promoting Temperance with
remarks on errors in its advocacy. (1859)
Holyoake, G.J., Suppressed Lecture at Cheltenham. (1864)
Holyoake, G.J., A Suppressed Princess. (1863)
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A HISTORY OF THE BRITISH SECULAR MOVEMENT
Holyoake, G.J., Thomas Cooper delineated as convert and
controversialist. A companion to his missionary wanderings (1861)
Holyoake, G. J., Three Lectures in Heywood, in answer to Mr. E.
Grubb's lectures, entitled 'Infidelity Unmasked' (1852)
Holyoake, G.J., Tracts for the Thoughtful. (1863)
Holyoake, G. J., Travels in search of a Settler's Guide-Book of
America and Canada (1884)
Holyoake, G.J., The Trial of Theism. (1858)
Holyoake, G.J., Two Great Preachers: The Rev. Hugh Price Hughes,
the Rev. Dr. Joseph Barker; or, Appreciation distinct from
concurrence (1903)
Holyoake, G.J. The Uselessness of Prayer. (1861)
Holyoake, G.J., The Value of Biography, in the formation of
individual character illustrated by the life and writings of
Charles Ruce Pemberton (1845)
Holyoake, G.J., The Warpath of Opinion. (189-)
Holyoake, G.J., Wayside points for New Roads; or, defences of
Freethinking (1852-1853)
Holyoake, G.J., What may England yet do for Italy? (1861)
Holyoake, G.J., What Would follow on the effacement of
Christianity? (1893)
Holyoake, G.J., Why do the Clergy avoid discussion, and the
Philosophers discountenance it? (1852)
Holyoake, G.J., Working-class Representation: its conditions and
consequences ... (1868)
Holyoake, G.J., The Workman and the Suffrage. Letters to Lord
John Russell, M.P., and the 'Daily News' (1859)
Holyoake, G.J. and C. Bradlaugh, Secularism, scepticism, and
atheism. Verbatim Report of the proceedings of a two-nights'
public debate between Messrs. G.J. Holyoake and C. Bradlaugh
(1870)
Holyoake, G.J., and Rev. Brewin Grant, Christianity and
Secularism. Report of a public discussion between B. Grant and
G.J. Holyoake. (1853)
Holyoake, G.J., and Rev. Brewin Grant Discussion on secularism.
Report of a Public discussion between, the Rev. Brewin Grant and
G.J. Holyoake. (1854)
Holyoake, G.J., and Rev. Brewin Grant, Part one of the
Correspondence between the Rev. Brewin Grant and Mr. G.J.
Holyoake. (1852)
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A HISTORY OF THE BRITISH SECULAR MOVEMENT
Holyoake, G.J., and Rev. Brewin Grant, Part II of the
Correspondence Between the Rev. Brewn Grant and G.J. Holyoake.
(1852)
Holyoake, G.J., and Rev. Brewin Grant Review of a controversy
between the Rev. Brewin Grant and G.J. Holyoake ... on the
question 'What advantages would accrue to mankind generally and
the working classes in particular, by the removal of Christianity
and the substitution of Secularis in its place?' (1853)
Holyoake, G.J., and Dr. Frederic R. Lees, Public Discussion of
Teetotalism and the Maine Law, between George Jacob Holyoake,
Esq., and Dr. Frederic R. Lees (1856)
Holyoak, G. J., and Mr. G.E. Lomax, Report of a discussion on the
Maine Law between Mr. G.J. Holyoake ... and Mr. G.E. Lomax.
(1858)
Hiolyoake, G.J., and others, Giordano Bruno ... (1889)
Holyoake, G.J., and Rev. J.H. Rutherford, Christianity versus
Secularism: a public discussion ... between the Rev. J.H.
Rutherford and Mr, G.J. Holyoalce (1854)
Holyoake, G.J., and Rev. J.H. Rutherford, Correspondence between
Mr. George Jacob Holyoake ... and the Rev. John H. Rutherford.
(1853)
Holyoake, G.J., and Amos Scotton, The Jubilee History of the
Derby Cooperative Provident Societal, Ltd., 1850-1900 (1900)
Holyoake, G.J., and Henry Townley, Public Ditscussion on the
Being of a God. (1852)
Holyoake, G.J. and C. Watts, English Secularism and The Progress
of society. (1880)
Holyoake, G.J., and J.F. Winks, Both Sides of the Debate between
Mr. J. F. Winks and Mr. G.J. Holyoake. (1852)
"Holyoake, George Jacob," Biographical Dictionary of
Freethinker's. (1889)
"Holyoake, George Jacob," Biographical Dictionary of Modern
Rationalists. (1920)
"Holyoake, George Jacob," Chambers' Encyclopedia.
"Holyoake, George Jacob," Who's Who (British). (1906)
Hooper, Charles E., The R.P.A.: Its Origin and Growth (1908)
Hopkins, John Baker, "The Republican Impeachment," Gentleman's
Magazine, November, 1872.
Hopkins, John Baker, "The Republican Impeachment," Gentleman's
Magazine, February, 1873.
Bank of Wisdom
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A HISTORY OF THE BRITISH SECULAR MOVEMENT
Hornibrook, Mrs. Ettie A., Sexual Health and Birth Control.
(1925)
How C. Bradlaugh, M.P., was treated by the House of Commons.
Hughes, Dorothea Price, The Life of Hugh Price Hughes. (1904)
Hughes, Rev. Hugh Price, The Atheist Shoemaker. A page in the
history of the West London Mission (1889)
Hughes, Thomas, James Frasier, second bishop of Manchester; a
memoir (1887)
"The Human Origin and Imperfections of the Bible."
Humanitas, pseud., Against Socialism. (1889)
Humanitas, pseud., Charles Bradlaugh, M.P., and the Irish Nation.
(1885)
Humanitas, pseud., A Fish in Labor; or, Jonah and the Whale
(1887)
Humanitas, pseud., Is God the First Cause? (1883)
Humanitas, pseud., The Horrors of War. (1870)
Humanitas, pseud., Jacob the Wrestler. (1886)
Humanitas, pseudo, Observations on the extension of "Contagious
Diseases Act," to civil populations (1869)
Humanitas, pseud., Socialism a Curse. (1884)
Humanitas, pseud., Twelve Reasons against Taking away Life as a
Punishment. (185?)
Hutton, R.H., "Secularism," Expositor'. (1881)
Hyndman, H.M., Further Reminiscences. (1912)
The Investigator; a journal of secularism. (1854-59)
Ion, pseud., Blasts from Bradlough's own Trumpet. (1882)
Kent, William, London for Heretics. (1932)
Knight, William, An Unsigned article containing an inalysis of
Bradlaugh's latest theistic argument in 'Freethinker's Text
Book', British Quarterly Review, July, 1871.
Knowlton, Charles, Fruits of Philosophy.
Laing, F.H., The Catholic Freethinker's Flysheet. Mr. Bradlaugh
the Model Protestant (1883)
Bank of Wisdom
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A HISTORY OF THE BRITISH SECULAR MOVEMENT
Langford, Dr. John Alfred, Christianity, not Seculatism, the
practical Philosophy of the People: a reply to G.J. Holyoake's
Tract 'Secularism, the Practical Philosophy of the People' (1854)
Lansbury, George, My Life. (1928)
"Law, Mrs. Harriet," Biographical Dictionary of Modern
Rationalists (1920)
Leeds Secular Society, The Converted Lecturer, or Mr. Gordon's
repudiation of Secular principles examined (1862)
The Leicester Reasoner. (1902)
The Liberal (1879)
The Liberty of Bequest Intelligencer (1892)
Linton, W.J,. Memories. (1895)
Lloyd, John T., From Christian Pulpit to Secular Platform. (1903)
Lloyd, John T., God. (1904)
Lloyd, John T., God-eating.... (1921
Lloyd, John T., Prayer: its origin, history and futility. (1916)
"Lloyd, John T., "Biographical Dictionary of Modern Rationalists.
(1920)
London Secular Society, Constitution and Laws of the London
Secular Society. (1853?)
Lyall, Edna, (Bayly, Ada Ellen) Donovan: a Modern Englishman.
(1888)
Lyall, Edna, (Bayly, Ada Ellen) We Too. (1884)
McCabe, Joseph, A Biographical Dictionary of Modern Rationalis's.
(1920)
McCabe, Joseph, From Rome to Rationalism; or, Why I left the
Church (1897)
McCabe, Joseph, George Jacob Holyoake. (1922)
McCabe, Joseph, Life and Letters of George Jacob Holyoake. (1908)
McCabe, Joseph, Modern Rationalism. (1897)
McCabe, Joseph, Religion of the Twentieth Century. (1899)
McCabe, Joseph, Translater, The Riddle of the Universe at the
close of the nineteenth century, by Ernst Haeckel (1900)
McCabe, Joseph, Robert Owen., (1920)
Bank of Wisdom
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A HISTORY OF THE BRITISH SECULAR MOVEMENT
McCabe, Joseph, Twelve Years in a Monastery. (1897)
"McCabe, Joseph," Who's Who (British). (1932)
McCabe, Joseph, and Georges Darien, Can We Disarm. (1899)
McCann, Rev. J., Anti-Secularist Lectures. (1867)
McCann, Rev. James, The Death of Secularism. (1867?)
McCann, Rev. James, Secularist Objctions to the Bible. (1867)
Mackay, Charles R., Life of Bradlaugh. (1888)
McLaren, A.D., The Christian's Sunday, its history and fruits
(1922)
McLaren, A.D., Infidel Death-beds.... (1933)
Magee, William Connor, and C. Bradlaugh, Christianity in Relation
to freethought, scepticism, and faith: Three discourses by the
bishop of Peterborough, with special replies by Charles Bradlaugh
(1892)
Mallock, W.H., Is Life Worth Living? (1879)
Mann, Tom, Tom Mann's Memoirs. (1923)
Mann, Walter, Christanity in, China: an exposure of foreign
missions (1927)
Mann, Walter, Modern Materialism. (1921)
Mann, Walter, Pagan and Christian Moranly. (1917)
Mann, Walter, The Religion of Famous Men. (1916)
Mann, Walter, Science and the Soul. (1919)
Marryat, Florence, Life and Letters of Captain Marryat. (1872)
Malthus, Thomas, Essay on the Principle of Population. (1798)
Maughan, John, Secularism,; what it is. (1858)
Maughan, John,. Editor, The Stepping-Stone.
Mawer, W., The Latest Constitutional Struggle: a register of
events which have occurred since April 2, 1880. (1883)
May, Thomas Erskine, Constitutional History of England. (1880)
Maynard, John of Plymouth, Exposure of the Infidel Notions of Dr.
Aveling on the Parentage of Man. (1882)
Mencken, H.L., Treatise on Right and Wrong. (1934)
Bank of Wisdom
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A HISTORY OF THE BRITISH SECULAR MOVEMENT
Miall, Bernard, Translator, My Years of Exile; reminiscenses of a
socialist, by Eduard Bernstein (1921)
Mill, John Stuart, Autobiography. (1873)
Mill, John Stuart, Nature, the Utility of Religion and Theism.
(1887?)
"Mill (John Stuart), " Biographical Dictionary of Freethinkers.
(1889)
"Mill, John Stuart," Biographical Dictioitary of Modern
Rationalists. (1920)
Molesworth, W.N., History of England (1830-1874) (1874)
Morley, John, Life of William Ewart Gladstone. (1903)
Moss, Arthur B., The Bible and Evolution. (1890)
Moss, Arthur B., The Bible God and his favorites. (188-?)
Moss, Arthur B., Bible Horrors: or, True Blasphemy (1885)
Moss, Arthur B., Bible-makers: Moses, Joshua ... and others
(1885)
Moss, Arthur B., Bible Saints and Sinners. (1885)
Moss, Arthur B., The Brain and the Soul. (1885)
Moss, Arthur B., Bruno and Spinoza. (1885)
Moss, Arthur B., Christianity: a degrading religion (1884)
Moss, Arthur B., Christianity and Evolution. (1892)
Moss, Arthur B., Christianity Unworthy of God. (1881)
Moss, Arthur B., Darwin against Moses. (1885)
Moss, Arthur B., Design and Natural Selection. (1885)
Moss, Arthur B., Fictitious Gods. (1890?)
Moss, Arthur B., Health, Wealth, and Happiness, (1885)
Moss, Arthur B., Lectures and Essays.
Moss, Arthur B., Malthusianism v. socialism. a debate between
Moss and H. Quelch ... 1899
Moss, Arthur B., Man and the Lower Animals (1886)
Moss, Arthur B., Miracle Workers. (188-)
Moss, Arthur B., Natural Man. (1884)
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A HISTORY OF THE BRITISH SECULAR MOVEMENT
Moss, Arthur B., Nature and the Gods, (1884)
Moss, Arthur B., The Old Faith and the New. (188-)
Moss, Arthur B., Two Revelations. (1900?)
Moss, Arthur B., The Secular Faith, (1886)
Moss, Arthur B., Socrates, Buddha, and Jesus. (1885)
Moss, Arthur B., Waves of Freethought
"Moss (Arthur B.)," Biographical Dictionary of Freethinkers.
(1889)
"Moss, Arthur B., Biographical Dictioitary of Modern
Rationalists. (1920)
Moss, Arthur B., and Agnes Rollo Wilkie, Was Jesus an Impostor? a
discussion between Agnes Rollo Wilkie and Arthur B. Moss (1885)
Mr. Bradlaugh and the House of Commons. From a Hindoo Point of
view. (1884)
Mr. Bradlaugh and the Oath Question. (1883)
Mr Bradlaugh, the Member for Northampton. (1881?)
The National Reformer. (1860-1893)
National Secular Society, General Information for Freethinkers
(1921)
National Secular Society, Leaflets, 1-4, 6-8. New Series, 1, 7,
9. (1917-1920?)
National Secular Society, The Impossibility of Proving the
Existence of God by the argument from Design.
The National Secular Society's Almanack. (1869 ff)
Neale, Francis, A Freethinker's View of the Holy Bible.
Neale, Francis, Heterodox Essays. (188-)
Neff, Emery, Carlyle and Mill (1926)
The New Generation, for January, 1922.
The New House Agitator. (November, 1869)
Newman, Charles Robert, Essays in Rationalism ... (1891)
A Night with Bradlaugh! (1882)
"Oath," Chambers' Encyclopaedia.
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A HISTORY OF THE BRITISH SECULAR MOVEMENT
Owen, Robert, The Life of Robert Owen. (1920)
Oxford House Papers. (1897)
Pack, Ernest, The Trial and Imprisonment of J.W. Gott for
Blasphenzy.
Parker, John, Rev., The Difficulties of Infidelity. (1891?)
Parker, Joseph, Rev., Secularist Theory -- A Critique (1857)
Parker, Joseph, Rev., Six Chapters on Secularism. (1854)
Paulson, E., The Crimes of Atheism. (1886)
Peers, Robert, Thomas Cooper. (1931)
Percival, P., The Position of Positivism, with some remarks on
the Position of Secularism (1891)
Peterson, Houston, Havelock Ellis: Philosopher of Love.
The Pioneer (1903-4)
Plumptre, C.E., Miss, "Charles Bradlaugh: an Appeal," Westminster
Review, October, 1891
Plumptre, Constance E., On the Progress of liberty of thought
during Queen Victoria's Reign. (1902)
Podmore, Frank, Robert Owen. (1906)
The Present Day (1883-1886)
"Prize Essay on Infidelity," issued by the Evangelical Alliance
The Propagandist (1862)
The Prosecution of Messrs. Foote and Ramsay for Blaphemy (1883)
Quasimodo, pseud., Joseph Barker, and his expulsion from the
secular body. (1861)
Quill, Malcolm, Memoirs of a Positivist. (1924)
The Radical. (1886-89)
Ramsey, William James, In Prison for Blasphemy. (1883)
Rationalist Press Association, Let Reason Prevail. (1935?)
"The Reasoner." (1846-1861)
Reddalls, G.H. Modern spiritualism; an examination and exposure
(1875)
Pees, Rev., Seculorist's Catechism.
Reid, R., Gambetta and Bradlaugh. (188?)
Bank of Wisdom
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A HISTORY OF THE BRITISH SECULAR MOVEMENT
"Religious Heresies of the Working Classes." Westminster Review,
1st quarter, 1862.
The Republican. (1880 ff.)
Republican Chronicle. (1875 ff)
Robertson, James, Mr. Holyoake and his Assailants. (1862)
Robertson, James, Secularists and the 'Investigator'. (1858)
Robertson, James, Secularists and their Slanderers. (1858)
Robertson, J.M., Charles Bradlaugh. (1920)
Robertson, J.M., Culture and Action. (1884)
Robertson, J.M., The Eight Hour Question. (1893)
Robertson, J.M., The Fallacy of Saving. (1892)
Robertson, J.M., A History of Freethought in the 19th Century.
(1930)
Robertson, J.M., "Introduction" to The Natural History of
Religion. By David Hume (1889)
Robertson, J.M., Over-population. (1890)
Robertson, J.M., "The Philosophy of Bradlaugh," R.P.A. Annual,
1909. (1908)
Robertson, J.M., The Pleasures of Malignity. (1884)
Hobertson, J.M., The Population Question. (189-)
Robertson, J.M., The Priest and the Child. (189-)
Robertson, J.M., The Religion of Shakespere. (1884)
Robertson, J.M., "Reminiscence of Bradlaugh," R.P.A. Annual and
Ethical Review, 1908,
Robertson, J.M., Royalism: A note on the Queen's Jubilee. (1886)
Robertson, J.M., Short History of Freethought, ancient and
modern. (1906)
Robertson, J.M., Socialism and Malthusianism. (1885)
Robertson, J.M., Editor, Speeches by Charles Bradlaugh. ...
(189-?)
Robertson, J.M., Thomas Paine. (1888)
Robertson, J.M., Torryism and Barbarism. (1885)
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A HISTORY OF THE BRITISH SECULAR MOVEMENT
Robertson, J.M., What Has Christianity Done? (187?)
Robertson, J.M., Why Preserve the Monarchy? (187?)
"Robertson, (John Mackinnon)," Biographical Dictionary of
Freethinkers. (1889)
"Robertson, The Right Honerable John Mackinnon," Biographical
Dictionary of Modern Rationalists. (1920)
"Robertson, Rt. Hon. John Mackinnon," Who's Who (British) for
1932.
Rogers, Frederick, Labour, Life, and Literature. (1913)
Ross, Wm. Stewart, "The Secular Review," The Agnostic Annual,
1887.
Ross, William Stewart, Sketch of the Life and Character of C.
Watts, (188?)
"Ross, William Stewart," Biogralihical Dictionary of
Freethinkers. (1889)
"Ross. William Stewart," Biographical Dictionary of Modern
Rationalists. (1920)
Salt, Henry S., The Life of James Thompson. (1889)
Salt, Henry S., Seventy Years Among Savages. (1921)
Savage, James A., Modern Atheism. (1853)
Scott, Rev. John, Christianity and Secularism. (1856)
Scott, Thomas, Farewell Address. (1877)
Scotulus, pseudonym, The Blunders of Faith. An answer to 'The
Difficulties of Infidelity' (1891)
Secular Chronicle (1872-1875)
The Secular Miscellany. (1854)
Secular Society, Limited, A Fight for right. The decision of the
House of Lords in re Bowman and others v. the Secular Society,
Limited. Verbatim report. With introduction by Chapman Cohen.
(1917)
Secularism," Chambers' Encyclopaedia.
"Secularism," Encyclopaedia Britannica. (1929)
"Secularism," Saturday Review. July 2, 1859.
Secularist, The Creed of a Secularist. (1876)
Secularist (1876-1877)
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A HISTORY OF THE BRITISH SECULAR MOVEMENT
Secular Review (1881?-)
Secular Review (1876-1877)
Secular Review and Secularist, (1877-?)
The Secular World and Social Economist. (1863-64)
Selbourne, Lord, Memoirs. (1896, 1398)
Sexton, Dr. George, The Fallacies of Secularism. (1877)
Sexton, Dr. George, The Folly of Atheism. (1880)
Sexton, George, Thomas Paine. (1867)
Shaw, G.B., Quintessence of Ibsenism. (1904)
Shaw, G.B., G. Lansbury, and others, Dr. Annie Besant: Fifty
Years in Public Work (1924)
"Snell, Henry," Biographical Dictionary of Modern Rationalists.
(1920)
Society of Secularists, Code of the tenets or governing
principles of the Society of Secularists. (1881)
Southwell, Charles, Another 'Fourpenny Wilderness'.
Southwell, Charles, Confessions of a Freethinker.
Southwell, Charles, I am an Infidel. Why are You a Christian? ...
Southwell, Charles, The Impossibility of Atheism demonstrated.
(1854)
Southwell, Robert, Superstition, Unveiled. (1854)
The Spectator, A Weekly review of Polities, literature, theology
and art, April, 1886.
Standring, George, Court Flunkies their 'work' and wages (1879)
Standring, George, Does Royalty Pay? (1884)
Standring, George, Life of Charles Bradlaugh. (188?)
Standring, George, Life of Col. R.G. Ingersoll. (1881)
'Standring, (George) Biographical Dictionary of Freethinkers.
(1889)
"Standring, George," Biographical Dictionary of Modern
Rationalists. (1920)
Stead, W.T., "Annie Besant," Review of Reviews for October, 1891.
Stead, W.T., Character Sketches of modern celebrities (1892)
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A HISTORY OF THE BRITISH SECULAR MOVEMENT
Stead, W.T., Interviews with Mr. W.T, stead on the Church of the
Future. (1891)
Stead, W.T., Portraits and Autographs. (189O)
Stephens, E.A. A New and original reply to Paine's 'Age of
reason,' with an appended dissertation on Secularists and
secularism
Stephens, E., Atheism and Future Punishment. (1878)
Stevenson, R.L., Underwoods.
Stopes Marie, Contraception.
Stopes, Marie, Early Days of Birth Control. (1922)
Superstition and Fanaticism: their disastrous effects upon
mankind
Symes, Joseph, Christianity at the Bar of Science. (1881)
Symes Joseph, Christianity Essentially a Persecuting Religion,
(1882)
Symes, Joseph, Christianity and Slavery. (1880)
Symes, Joseph, Hospit(its and Dispensaries not of Christian
Origin. (187-)
Symes, Joseph, The Life and Death of my Religion. (1884)
Symes, Joseph, Man's Place in Nature; or, Man, an animal among
animals (1878)
Symes, Joseph, The Methodist Conference and Eternal Punishment.
(1877)
Symes, Joseph, The New Testament Manuscripts; or, Christianity
completely undermined (1906)
Symes, Joseph, Philosophic Atheism; a bundle of fragments (1879)
Symes, Joseph, Universal Despair; or, Who will be damned if
Christianity be true (1883)
Symes, Joseph, and G. St. Clair, Is Atheism or Theism more
rational? a discussion between Mr. Joseph Symes and Mr. George
St. Clair (1882)
"Symes (Joseph)," Biographical Dictionary of Freethinkers. (1889)
"Symes, Joseph," Biographical Dictionary of Modern Rationalists.
"Tributes to Dr. Annie Besant, D.L., P.T.S., Servant of Humanity.
From Representative Indians and Europeans," New India, August 25,
1924.
Bank of Wisdom
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A HISTORY OF THE BRITISH SECULAR MOVEMENT
Troup, Emile Josephine, Compiler, Hymns of Modern Thought. (1900)
The Truth Seeker.
Turley, W., Mr. Holyoake and His Detractors. (1862)
The Universal Republic.
Upsaka, pseud., Buddha the Atheist. (1928)
"Vance, Edith Maurice," Biographical Dictionary of Modern
Rationalists. (1920)
Varley, Henry, An Address to the Electors of the Borough of
Northampton. (1881)
Varley, Henry, Mr. Bradlaugh Shown to be utterly unfit to
represent any English constituency. (1881)
Verbatim Report of the two trials of G.W. Foote, W.J. Ramsay and
H.A. Kemp, for blasphemous libel in the Christmas Number of the
'Freethinker' ... (1883)
Wagner, D.O., The Church of England and Social Reform since 1854
(1930)
Ward, Mrs. Humphrey, The History of David Grieve. (1892)
Ward, Mrs. Humphrey, Robert Elsmere. (1891?)
Watts, Charles, The Alleged resurrection of Jesus: was it a fact?
(187-?)
Watts, Charles, Atheism and the French Revolution. (188?)
Watts, Charles, Atheism and the Gloucester Execution. (187-?)
Watts, Charles, The BibIe and Christianity. (1876)
Watts, Charles, The Bible: is it reliable as a guide? (1873)
Watts, C., and G.W. Foote, Editors, British Secular Almanack,
1878 ff.
Watts Charles,The Character of Christ. (187?)
Watts: Charles, The Christian Deity. (1873)
Watts, Charles, Christian Evidences Criticised, A Reply to the
Christian Evidence Society (1870)
Watts, Charles, Christianity: its nature and influence on
civilization. (1868?)
Watts, Charles, The Christian's Notion of Man s ultimate State of
Existence. (186-?)
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A HISTORY OF THE BRITISH SECULAR MOVEMENT
Watts, Charles, The Christian Scheme of Redemption. (1868)
Watts, Charles, The Claims of Christianity Examined from a
rationalist Standpoint. (1895)
Watts, Charles, A Defense of Secular Principles. (187?)
Watts, Charles, The English Church a Failure as a Reforming
agency. (1880)
Watts, Charles, The English Monarchy and American Republicanism.
(1873)
Watts Charles, English nonconformity: what has it done for mental
freedom and national progress? (187-)
Watts, Charles, Freethought and modern Progress. (1868)
Watts, Charles, The Government and the People: a plea for reform,
(1873)
Watts, Charles, Is Immortality a Fact? (1902)
Watts, Charles, The Modern Defense of Christianity. (188-?)
Watts, Charles, The Moral value of the Bible, (187-)
Watts, Charles, Philosophy of Secularism. (1890?)
Watts, Charles, A Refutation of Mr. Bradlaugh's Inaccuracies and
Misrepresentations. (1877)
Watt's, Charles, Republicanism. (1873)
Watts, Charles, Science and the Bible Antagonistic. (1874)
Watts; Charles; A Secular burial service. Arranged by and
published for the council of the British Secular Union (188?)
Watts, Charles, Secular Ceremonies: the Naming of Infants (1869)
Watts, Charles, The Secular Duties of Life. (187?)
Watts, Charles, Secular Morality: What is it? An Exposition and a
defense (1880)
Watts, Charles, Secular and Theological Forces. (187?)
Watts, Charles, Secularism and Christianity. (1867)
Watts, Charles, Secularism; its principles and its duties. (1880)
Watts, Charles, Secularism in its various Relations.
Watts, Charles; Spiritualism, a delusion. (1900)
Watts, Charles, Theological Persecution and Freethought
Martyrdom. (188-?)
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A HISTORY OF THE BRITISH SECULAR MOVEMENT
Watts, Charles, Why am I an Atheist? or, Theism criticised (188?)
Watts, Charles, and Rev. Wm. Adamson, Full Report of the Public
Discussion on the Question, is the Belief in an Infinite Personal
Being Reasonable and Beneficial? between the Rev. Wm. Adamson ...
and Mr. C. Watts ... (1872)
Watts, Charles, and B.H. Cooper, Debate on the Christian
Evidences between Mr. C. Watts and B.H. Cooper, Esq. ... (1871)
Watts, Charles, and T. Crow, Merits and demerits of Secularism.
Verbatim report of a discussion betiveen T. Crow and C. Watts ...
(1876)
Watts, Charles, and Alexander Jamieson, Verbatim report of four
nights' discussion on the question: 'Is Secularism superior to
Christianity?' and 'Is Christianity Superior to Secularism?'
Between Dr. Alexander Jamieson ... and Mr. Charles Watts ...
(1895)
Watts, Charles, and Alexander Jamieson, Verbatim report of three
nights' discussion of the questions: Is it reasonable to believe
in the existence of a powerful and intelligent being distinct
from the material universe? and Has Man a soul that will live in
a future State? Between Dr. Alexander Jamieson ... and Mr.
Charles Watts ... (1894)
Watts, Charles, and Dr. George sexton, Debate on Christianity ...
between ... G. Sexton ... and C. W., etc. (1877)
Watts, Charles, and Rev. A. Stewart, Four nights' Public
Discussion between the Rev. A. Stewart ... and Mr. C. Watts, on
Is the Belief in the Being of an Infinite Personal God
Reasonable? and Are the Four Gospels Authentic and worthy of
credit? (1873)
"Watts (Charles)," Biographical Dictionary of Freethinkers.
(1889)
"Watts, Charles," Biographical Dictionary of Modern Rationalists.
(1920)
Watts, John, The Christian Doctrine of the Destruction of the
World Examined and refuted. (1865)
Watts John, The Christian Doctrine of Man's Depravity Refuted.
(186-?)
Watts: John, The Criminal History of the Clergyman. (1857)
Watts, John, The Devil: who he is, and whence he came.
Watts, John, Half Hours with Freethinkers. (1856-57)
Watts John, The Heart of Man Shown not to be Deceitful above all
hings, and Desperately Wicked (Jeremiah Refuted) (1961)
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A HISTORY OF THE BRITISH SECULAR MOVEMENT
Watts, John, Is Man Immortal?
Watts' John, The Logic and Philosophy of Atheism. (1865)
Watts, John, The Miracles and Prophecies of the Bible no Proof of
Christian Truth. (1861)
Watts, John, The Origin of Man. (1861)
Watts, John, Rev. Brewin Grant Extinguished. (1861)
Watts, John, Secularism, 'the one thing needful.' (186?)
Watts, John, Who Were the Writers of the New Testament?
"Watts (John)," Biographical Dictionary of Freethinkers. (1889)
"Watts, John," Biographical Dictionary of Modern Ratioalists.
(1920)
Watts, Kate Eunice, Editor, Christianity and Agnosticism. A
Correspondence between a clergyman of the Church in Scotland and
George Anderson (1899)
Watts, Kate Eunice, Christianity: defective and unnecessary.
(1900?)
Watts, Kate Eunice, Mrs. Watts' Reply to Mr. Bradlaugh's
misrepresentations. (1877)
Watts, Kate Eunice, Reasons for not accepting Christianity.
Webb, Beatrice, My Apprenticeship. (1929)
Webb, Sidney and Beatrice, Industrial Democracy. (1897)
Weekly Times and Echo
Wells, Geoffrey Harry, (pseud., West, Geoffrey) Mrs. Annie Besant
(1927)
Wells, Geoffrey Harry, (pseud., West, Geoffrey) Six Brilliant
English Women; ... Annie Besant (1930)
West, Geoffrey, The Life of Annie Besant. (1929)
Wharton, Charles H., Mr. Bradlaugh and the Oath. A Letter
addressed to ... the members of the House of Commons (1882)
What Secularists are and what are their aims.
Wheeler, Joseph Mazzini, Bible Studies; essays on phallic worship
and other curious rites and customs (1892)
Wheeler, Joseph Mazzini, Biographical Dictionary of Freethinkers
(1889)
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A HISTORY OF THE BRITISH SECULAR MOVEMENT
Wheeler, Joseph Mazzini, Footsteps of the Past. Essays on human
Evolution.
Wheeler, Joseph Mazvini, Compiler, Freethought Readings and
Secular Songs. (189-.)
Wheeler, Joseph Mazzini, Introduction to "An Essay on Miracles,"
by David Hume (1882)
Wheeler, Joseph Mazzini, Paganism in Christian Festivals. (1932)
Wheeler, Joseph Mazzini, and G.W. Foote, Voltaire: a sketch of
his life and works. With selections from his writings. (1894)
"Wheeler, Joseph Mazzini," Biographical Dictionary of Modern
Rationalists. (1920)
White, Dr. Frank W,, Birth Control and its opponents. (1935)
White, Frederick, William T. Stead. (1925)
Whitehead, George, Bernard Shaw explained. (1925)
Whitehead, George, Birth Control and Race culture, (1925)
Whitehead, George, The Case against Theism. (1922?)
Whitehead, George, The Evolution of Morality. (1933)
Whitehead, George, Free thought on Sex! The social and personal
aspects of sex and race culture (1922)
Whitehead, George, Gods, Devils, and Men. (1928)
Whitehead, George, Jesus Christ: Man, God, or Myth (1921)
Whitehead, George, A Lesson in Socialism from Jack London's
'White Fang' (1913?)
Whitehead, George, Man and his Gods (1921)
Whitehead, George, A Modern Outline of Evolution. (1933)
Whitehead, George, Religion and Woman. (1928)
Whitehead, George, Sex and Religion. (1930)
Whitehead, George, Spiritualism Explained. (1928)
Whitehead, George, Towards a Better World. (1931)
Whitehead, George, Unemployment: causes and remedies, (1933)
Whitehead, George, The Unfair Sex. The truth about women (1930)
Whitehead, George, What is Morality? (1925)
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A HISTORY OF THE BRITISH SECULAR MOVEMENT
Whitmore, Rev. C.J., What Becomes of the Infidel Leaders?
Wigan Examiner (October, 1860, to February, 1861)
Williams, Mrs. Gertrude Leavenworth, The Passionate Pilgrim; a
life of Annie Besant (1931)
Winterton, F., There is a God. (1883)
Working Man, The fallacies of Atheism exposed. A reply to Dr.
Bradlaugh's 'Plea for Atheism.' (1882)
Yorkshire Tribune, (July, 1855-September, 1855)
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