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pythonCode/personTestingOutput/testing.xml
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pythonCode/personTestingOutput/testing.xml
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<xml><p>Nuclear Weapons Testing Facts
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August 18, 1991</p>
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<p> <ent type='GPE'>Nevada</ent> Desert Experience
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PO Box 4487
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<ent type='GPE'>Las Vegas</ent>, NV 89127
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Telephone: 702-646-4814
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FAX: 702-386-5984</p>
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<p> NUCLEAR BOMB AND WEAPONS TESTING FACTS</p>
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<p>The US explodes nuclear bombs underground at the <ent type='GPE'>Nevada</ent> Test Site
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(<ent type='ORG'>NTS</ent>), 65 miles northwest of <ent type='GPE'>Las Vegas</ent>. The <ent type='ORG'>NTS</ent> is 1350 square
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miles in size, larger than the state of <ent type='GPE'>Rhode Island</ent>. The 1863
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Treaty of <ent type='GPE'>Ruby Valley</ent> recognizes the Western <ent type='ORG'>Shoshone</ent> Nation's
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right to the land.[1] Despite <ent type='ORG'>Shoshone</ent> objections, the US
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Department of Energy (<ent type='ORG'>DOE</ent>) operates the <ent type='ORG'>NTS</ent> for testing nuclear
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bombs and weapons.</p>
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<p> Nearly 5000 persons work for the nuclear weapons testing program
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in the <ent type='GPE'>Las Vegas</ent>/<ent type='ORG'>NTS</ent> areas. The research, develop-ment and
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testing budget for the US in FY 1990 was nearly $2 billion.[2]
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Millions of dollars are now being allocated to assess and begin
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clean-up of the environmental damage at <ent type='ORG'>NTS</ent>.</p>
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<p> Los Alamos Laboratory in <ent type='GPE'>New Mexico</ent> and <ent type='PERSON'>Lawrence Livermore</ent> in
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<ent type='GPE'>California</ent> design and perfect nuclear weapons for the US testing
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program. Both labs are managed by <ent type='ORG'>the University</ent> of <ent type='GPE'>California</ent>.
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The main <ent type='ORG'>NTS</ent> contractors are EG&G (Edgerton, Germeshausen &
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<ent type='PERSON'>Grier</ent>), its subsidiary, REECo (Reynolds Electrical and Engineering
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Co.), and Raytheon.</p>
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<p> <ent type='ORG'>NTS</ent> became the location for on-continent nuclear weapons testing
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in 1951. Previous to that the first nuclear bomb test took place
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in the atmosphere in <ent type='GPE'>New Mexico</ent>.</p>
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<p> Nuclear bombs were dropped in <ent type='GPE'>Japan</ent> on the populations of
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<ent type='GPE'>Hiroshima</ent> and <ent type='GPE'>Nagasaki</ent> in 1945. Between 1946 and late-1962
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atmospheric and underground nuclear tests were conducted by the US
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in <ent type='GPE'>the Marshall Islands</ent>, <ent type='LOC'>Christmas Island</ent> and Johnston Atoll in
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<ent type='LOC'>the Pacific south</ent> of <ent type='GPE'>Hawaii</ent>, and over <ent type='LOC'>the South Atlantic Ocean</ent>. In
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addition to <ent type='GPE'>Nevada</ent>, several underground nuclear weapons tests
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since 1962 have been in <ent type='GPE'>Colorado</ent>, <ent type='GPE'>Mississippi</ent>, <ent type='GPE'>New Mexico</ent>, &
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Amchitka, an <ent type='LOC'>Aleutian Island</ent> off <ent type='GPE'>Alaska</ent>'s coast.[3]</p>
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<p> Atomic veterans are those men and women in the armed forces who
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were exposed to radiation from these nuclear weapons tests. Some
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flew through radioactive clouds or marched to ground-zero; others
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cleaned ships that had been contaminated, recovered instruments,
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and/or were docked in bombing areas. <ent type='NORP'>Civilians</ent> who received
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radiation doses where they live are called <ent type='GPE'>Downwinders</ent>. <ent type='ORG'>Congress</ent>
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has legislated compensation for atomic veterans, test site workers
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and those <ent type='GPE'>Downwinders</ent> in <ent type='GPE'>Utah</ent> and <ent type='GPE'>Nevada</ent> who have been exposed to
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radiation fallout from the aboveground nuclear weapons tests.
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<ent type='ORG'>Congress</ent> has not yet authorized the funds for this compensation.</p>
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<p> Nuclear weapons tests are conducted within vertical shafts
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hundreds of feet underground and in horizontal tunnels into
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mountains. According to <ent type='ORG'>DOE</ent>, the purpose of testing nuclear bombs
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is (1) to check for reliability of stockpiled weapons, (2) to test
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new safety features,(3) to test new weapon designs, and (4) to
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determine the effects of explosion-produced radiation on military
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hardware.</p>
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<p> Radiation ventings occur routinely as part of the clean-up
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process after an underground nuclear weapons test. According to
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<ent type='ORG'>DOE</ent> controlled ventings present no danger to human health, and no
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radiation leaks occur. There is growing evidence in the
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international scientific community that long-term exposure to low-level radiation results in lowered resistance to certain diseases
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as well as possible genetic changes.</p>
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<p> <ent type='ORG'>INTERNATIONAL EFFORTS</ent> TO LIMIT NUCLEAR WEAPONS TESTING</p>
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<p> The Partial Test Ban Treaty (<ent type='ORG'>PTBT</ent>) of 1963 requires that all
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tests be underground. Public outcry about health effects from
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aboveground tests helped bring about the <ent type='ORG'>PTBT</ent>. In the prologue of
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this treaty signatory nations agree to continue negotiations to
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end all nuclear weapons tests.[4]</p>
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<p> The Non-Proliferation Treaty (<ent type='ORG'>NPT</ent>) of 1970 requires that nuclear
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nations refrain from transferring nuclear weapon devices and/or
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nuclear weapons technology to non-nuclear nations. It binds non-nuclear nations from developing or obtaining nuclear weapons in
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exchange for a share in the technology of the peaceful uses of
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atomic energy. The <ent type='ORG'>NPT</ent> requires a commitment by the nuclear
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nations to negotiate an end to the nuclear arms race. The prologue
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to the <ent type='ORG'>NPT</ent> recalls the earlier <ent type='ORG'>PTBT</ent> agreement that nuclear nations
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work toward discontinuing nuclear weapons testing altogether.[5]</p>
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<p> In 1995, the <ent type='ORG'>NPT</ent> nations will meet to decide whether to extend
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the treaty. Many of the non-nuclear nations at the <ent type='ORG'>NPT</ent> review
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meetings in 1990 made the extension of the Non-Proliferation
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Treaty dependent on progress being made toward an end to all
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nuclear weapons testing, specifically toward a Comprehensive Test
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Ban Treaty.</p>
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<p> The Threshold Test Ban Treaty of 1974 (ratified in 1990), limits
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the explosive power of nuclear weapons tests to 150 kilotons. (The
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<ent type='GPE'>Hiroshima</ent> bomb was 12 - 15 kilotons.)</p>
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<p> International efforts for a complete ban on nuclear weapons
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testing culminated in an Amendment <ent type='ORG'>Conference</ent> to the <ent type='ORG'>PTBT</ent> at the
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UN in January, 1991. The US and <ent type='GPE'>United Kingdom</ent> (UK) oppose a
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Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) and can veto an amendment. In
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spite of this the <ent type='ORG'>Conference</ent> passed a statement to continue to
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work toward an amendment. The US and UK were the sole "no" votes
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in this effort to end nuclear weapons testing.</p>
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<p> The Global Anti-Nuclear Alliance (GANA), an international
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citizens organization has recently formed to coordinate worldwide
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efforts to end nuclear weapons testing. GANA grew out of the May,
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1990, International Citizens <ent type='ORG'>Congress</ent> for a Nuclear Test Ban in
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<ent type='GPE'>Kazakhstan</ent>, <ent type='GPE'>USSR</ent>.</p>
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<p> OTHER NATIONS TESTING NUCLEAR WEAPONS</p>
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<p> The UK, before 1962, tested nuclear weapons in <ent type='GPE'>Australia</ent> and
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<ent type='LOC'>Christmas Island</ent>. Since 1962, the UK has tested weapons with the
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US. In 1990, the UK/US conducted one nuclear weapons test at the
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<ent type='ORG'>NTS</ent>. The UK is a signatory to both <ent type='ORG'>the Partial Test Ban Treaty</ent>
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(<ent type='ORG'>PTBT</ent>) and Non-Proliferation Treaty (<ent type='ORG'>NPT</ent>).</p>
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<p> The <ent type='GPE'>USSR</ent> nuclear weapons testing program, due to citizen
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pressure, may be moved from <ent type='GPE'>Kazakhstan</ent> to <ent type='LOC'>Novaya Zemlya</ent> above the
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<ent type='LOC'>Arctic Circle</ent>. The <ent type='GPE'>USSR</ent> has initiated moratoriums on nuclear
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weapons tests and has tested only once since October, 1989. The
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<ent type='GPE'>USSR</ent> has signed both the <ent type='ORG'>PTBT</ent> and <ent type='ORG'>NPT</ent>.</p>
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<p> <ent type='GPE'>China</ent> tested above ground from 1964-1980. The two most recent
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tests were detonated at <ent type='PERSON'>Lop</ent> Nor in 1990. The <ent type='NORP'>Chinese</ent> will not end
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nuclear weapons tests until the US and <ent type='GPE'>USSR</ent> have greatly reduced
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their nuclear arsenals and stopped testing. <ent type='GPE'>China</ent> has not signed
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the <ent type='ORG'>PTBT</ent>, but tests underground as that treaty requires. Recently
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<ent type='GPE'>China</ent> has agreed to sign the <ent type='ORG'>NPT</ent>.</p>
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<p> The <ent type='NORP'>French</ent> have conducted six nuclear weapons tests on islands
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in <ent type='LOC'>the South Pacific</ent> thus far in 1991. Some South Pacific
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Islanders link the end of nuclear weapons testing with their
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independence from <ent type='GPE'>France</ent>. <ent type='GPE'>France</ent> recently signed the <ent type='ORG'>NPT</ent>, but has
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not signed the <ent type='ORG'>PTBT</ent>.</p>
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<p> KNOWN NUCLEAR WEAPONS TESTS [6 & 7]</p>
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<p>Year of Atmospheric Underground Total 1990 1991
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First Test</p>
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<p>USA-1945 212 721 933 8 4
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<ent type='GPE'>USSR</ent>-1949 215 499 714 1 -
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<ent type='GPE'>FRANCE</ent>-1960 48 142 190 4 6
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UK-1952 21 22 43 1 -
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CHINA-1964 22 14 36 2 -
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INDIA-1974 1 1</p>
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<p> Sources:</p>
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<p>[1] Western <ent type='ORG'>Shoshone</ent> National Council, Western <ent type='ORG'>Shoshone</ent> Nation
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Newsletter, Vol.I, no.1, 1991.</p>
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<p>[2] <ent type='ORG'>International Foundation</ent>, Toward a Comprehensive Nuclear
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Warhead Test Ban, 1991. pg. 39.</p>
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<p>[3] U.S. Department of Energy, <ent type='GPE'>Nevada</ent> Operations Office,
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Announced US Nuclear Tests: July 1945 through December 1990.
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<ent type='GPE'>Springfield</ent>, VA: <ent type='ORG'>National Technical Information Service</ent>, 1990.
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pg. viii.</p>
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<p>[4] <ent type='ORG'>National Academy of Sciences</ent>-Nuclear Arms Control Washington,
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DC: Natl Academy Press, 1985. pgs. 336-368.</p>
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<p>[5] Ibid, pg. 196.</p>
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<p>[6] "Nuclear Notebook," Bulletin of Atomic Scientists, Vol. 47,
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No. 3, April, 1991. pg. 49.</p>
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<p>[7] "Nuclear Notebook," Bulletin of Atomic Scientists, Vol. 47,
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No. 4, May, 1991. pg. 49. </p>
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<p>Current as of August 18, 1991
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by Mary H. Lehman
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<ent type='GPE'>Nevada</ent> Desert Experience,
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</p></xml>
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